In the old days, the tractor was primarily used on the farm. Today, it is also used as a means of transportation, and as a tool in construction and industry. Driver comfort and safety have improved, and speed capabilities have increased. It is also not as physically demanding to operate such a machine now as it was in the past.

As a tractor operator, you should still be aware of the tractor's limitations. The tractor can tip over on steep slopes or heavy loads, and it can be challenging to drive in traffic.

In this chapter, we will start by looking at practice driving with a tractor. Then we will go through the requirements for obtaining a driver's license and the different driver's license classes. Finally, we will look at how the training is structured.

This chapter is about:

• 1.1 Practice run
• 1.2 Conditions for obtaining a driving license
• 1.3 Driving license classes
• 1.4 How the training takes place
• 1.5 Summary

1. Driving license and traffic training

1.1 Practice run (1/2)

Practice driving

Driving training includes mandatory lessons and courses, which you complete at a driving school or high school. In addition, you are allowed to practice driving privately under certain conditions. Private practice driving should primarily be used for group training, so that you become well-acquainted with the vehicle and a safe driver.

• You must take a basic traffic course before you can practice driving.
• You can start practice driving for class T from the age of 15.
• You cannot practice driving if you have a suspension period.
• Companions must be 25 years of age or older and have held a class T driver's license for at least 5 consecutive years.
• A companion may follow in another vehicle. The companion must then have visual contact and two-way communication with them.
• If you already have a driver's license or are over 25 years old, you do not need a basic traffic course to practice driving.

Ready for practice driving.

Lock-in period

Getting a driving ban means that you get a postponement of the time when you can get a driver's license. This means that you cannot drive or practice driving as long as you are under the ban. There are several offenses that can lead to you getting a driving ban. For example, if you are caught by the police for illegal practice driving, you risk at least a 6-month driving ban.

• If you have not yet turned 16, the restriction period will not begin to run until you actually turn 16.
• For more serious offenses, the suspension period will always be at least the same as the period for which your license would have been revoked if you had had a driving license in the first place. The police can also assess whether there is a need to extend the suspension period even further.
• You are not allowed to practice driving if you are under a curfew, unless you receive special permission from the police.

1. Driving license and traffic training

1.2 Conditions for obtaining a driver's license (1/2)

Conditions for obtaining a driver's license

There are requirements regarding age, health and conduct in order for you to be able to obtain the tractor license.

Age requirements

• You can take the theory test no earlier than 6 months before you turn 16.
• You can only complete the training after you have turned 16.

Health requirements

• When you apply for a class T driver's license, you must also complete a self-declaration stating that you meet the requirements for good mental and physical health.
• You must complete a simple vision test at the traffic police station before taking the theory test.

Other requirements

• You cannot be under a lockout period.
• You must be of good character.

You can apply for a driving license on the Norwegian Public Roads Administration's website.

Travel

Having good character means that you have not committed any offenses that have been prosecuted by the authorities. In other words, that you have no criminal record.

To prove that you have good character, you apply for a police certificate from the police.

Theory test and run-in

You must apply for a driving license before you can take the theory test. You do this on the Norwegian Public Roads Administration's website. Once your application has been registered, you can take the theory test. To take the driving test, you must have completed all mandatory training and passed the theory test.

You can take the training at a traffic police station, and you can book an appointment yourself. You are responsible for obtaining an approved vehicle for the training, and most people rent this from a traffic school.

The run-in lasts approximately 65 minutes. Here you will first be tested in connecting the trailer, and a safety check of the tractor and trailer. Then you will drive on varied roads and traffic, including turning and reversing tasks. The run-in ends with uncoupling the trailer.

Did you know?

Dark driving is mandatory – but you can take dark driving after the run-up, if you drive up between March 16 and October 31. In that case, you must take the dark driving the first winter after the run-up.

A good tip is to familiarize yourself with the areas near where you will be driving up.

1. Driving license and traffic training

1.3 Driving license classes (1/2)

You can drive this with a class T driver's license.

Tractor

• You can drive the tractor at a design speed of up to 40 km/h.
• You can drive a tractor and motorized equipment with or without a trailer, with a maximum total permitted weight of 25,000 kg.
• If you have been driving a tractor for more than 2 years, or if you get a class T driver's license when you are over 21 years old, the weight restriction of 25,000 kg disappears, and you can drive as heavy as you want.

If your tractor has a design speed of 40 km/h, you can drive a tractor on the highway as a 16-year-old.

Additionally, you can run:

• 3- or 4-wheel moped. If the vehicle has a curb weight of over 150 kg, you must be 18 years of age.
• Motorized vehicles with or without a trailer, which are not designed for the transport of persons or goods and which cannot drive faster than 30 km/h.

You can drive these without a license as long as you are not driving on a road.

• Tractors and motorized equipment with a design speed not exceeding 40 km/h may be driven by persons who have reached the age of 16 and have the necessary skills.
• Tractors and motorized equipment intended to be driven by pedestrians may be driven by persons who have reached the age of 16 and have the necessary skills.
• Motor vehicles with a permissible total weight not exceeding 3,500 kg and designed for a speed not exceeding 10 km/h may be driven by persons who have reached the age of 16 and have the necessary skills.

You can drive a combine harvester without having the class T license.

What does permissible total weight actually mean?

Remember that the permissible gross vehicle weight does not mean what the tractor and trailer weigh together. It means how much they are allowed to weigh together. So if the tractor and trailer actually weigh 15,000 kg, but have a permissible gross vehicle weight of over 25,000 kg, then you are not allowed to drive that combination!

Constructive speed

Design speed is the highest speed a vehicle is designed to travel.

It can only be changed by changing the construction.

Permitted total weight

The permissible gross vehicle weight is the maximum weight your vehicle can carry. It is stated in the vehicle registration document.

Other driver's license classes

The curriculum for class T requires that you also have knowledge of what the other driver's license classes grant you the right to drive.

• Class A, A1 and A2 – motorcycle
• Class AM – moped
• Class B - car, four-wheel motorcycle, moped
• Class C – truck
• Class C1 – light truck
• Class D – bus
• Class D1 – minibus
• Class E – trailer, where for example CE is a truck with a trailer
• Class S – snowmobile

The back of your driver's license states which driver's license classes you are entitled to drive in and how long they are valid for.

Bonus

If you took or are taking class BE for the first time after 2004, you also received or will receive the "free" right to drive a tractor and motorized equipment, both with a maximum permitted total weight of 25,000 kg and a maximum design speed of 40 km/h. This right is marked on the driver's license with class T code 144.

Expansion

If you want to drive a faster tractor, or carry heavier loads, you will need to get a Class T extension. There are a few different ways to get these.

From class T to T 141

If you are going to drive a tractor that has a design speed of 41-50 km/h, you must expand to T 141. This is a 7-hour course that you can take after having had the tractor license for 2 years, or if you have turned 21.

From class T 144 to T 148

If you have a tractor driving license through the BE license, you can also extend it to a tractor driving license that has a design speed of 41-50 km/h. The course is the same as for T 141.

Even faster tractor

If you are going to drive a tractor that can go faster than 50 km/h, you must get a class B license.

Even heavier tractor

If you are going to drive a tractor and trailer with a maximum permissible weight of more than 25,000 kg, you must obtain a class CE sticker.

If the tractor goes faster than 50 km/h, you must also have at least class B.

1. Driving license and traffic training

1.4 How the training takes place (1/2)

How the training takes place

Step-by-step training

Tractor training is carried out in 4 stages:

Step 1 – Basic traffic course

• If you do not have a previous driver's license and are between 15 and 24 years old, you must complete a basic traffic course.
• If you have a driver's license for another vehicle (for example, a moped, motorcycle or car), you do not have to take the basic traffic course again. You must then bring your driver's license as proof during the practice drive if you are under 25 years of age.
• If you are over 25 years old, you only need the first aid section and the dark driving section from the basic traffic course.

Step 2 – Basic vehicle and driving skills

• In this stage, you will learn to master the technical aspects of driving a tractor with a trailer. This is necessary to benefit from the training in stage 3.
• You will also learn how to make driving economical and as environmentally friendly as possible.
• You will acquire knowledge about driver training, use of tractors and trailers, responsibility when driving a tractor, and the human being as a road user.
• Towards the end of this step, you will conduct a step assessment.

Step 3 – Traffic competence

• At this stage, you will acquire traffic skills in a varied road and traffic environment.
• When you finish this step, you should be able to drive at a level close to the requirements to pass your driving test.
• Towards the end of the step, you will conduct a step assessment.

Step 4 – Final training

• At this stage, focus will be placed on risk understanding and self-awareness.
• You will complete a course in securing and marking cargo. The course takes approximately 2 hours.
• At this stage, you should also apply for a driver's license. This must be done before you can take the theory test.

Theory test and run-in

After you have completed the 4 steps, you can register for the theory test at the Norwegian Public Roads Administration. After passing the theory test, you can book an appointment for the drive-through.

Proper use of tipper trailers is part of the training.

1. Driving license and traffic training

1.5 Summary

Summary

We have reviewed this in chapter 1:

• You can start practice driving a tractor from the age of 15. You can complete the training after you turn 16.
• The training is carried out in 4 stages.
• You can drive a tractor and motorized equipment with or without a trailer as long as the total weight is a maximum of 25,000 kg.
• The vehicle's design speed is a maximum of 40 km/h.

In the next chapter we will take a closer look at the tractor's construction.

2. The tractor

2.0 Introduction

Introduction

In this chapter we will look at how the tractor is constructed. We will look at the different parts of the tractor and how you can check that they are working properly.

This chapter is about:

• 2.1 Engine and drivetrain
• 2.2 Steering and brakes
• 2.3 Tires and chains
• 2.4 Lighting equipment
• 2.5 The cab
• 2.6 Power take-off and hydraulics
• 2.7 Security check
• 2.8 Summary

2. The tractor

2.1 Engine and drivetrain (1/4)

Tractor construction

The tractor is a two-axle motor vehicle designed to carry, push or pull implements and trailers. An agricultural tractor has a design speed of up to 40 km/h.

The tractor can have drive on either both axles or only the rear axles. It has one or two mechanical power take-offs for implements, a towbar and a three-point linkage for implements. The three-point linkage is raised and lowered hydraulically.

The engine

Most tractors have a diesel engine. A diesel engine is powered by pistons that move up and down inside cylinders. The engine lets air into the cylinder, and the air is compressed by the piston. When the air is compressed, it becomes very hot. When the air is hot enough, the engine sprays diesel into the cylinder. The heat ignites the diesel, increasing the pressure. This pushes the piston back down, starting the process all over again. The pistons are next to each other, and as they move up and down, they rotate on a rod that in turn rotates the wheels.

The engine is lubricated by oil that is pumped around to the parts that need to be lubricated, and cooled by coolant.

It also has a dynamo that produces electricity for the tractor. The electricity is stored in a large, rechargeable battery.

The pistons in the diesel engine

In this film you can see what it looks like when the pistons in the engine are moving.

Air filter and turbocharger

Air filter

To prevent damage to the engine, the air drawn into the cylinders must be completely clean. This is ensured by the air filters. The air filters are located between the air intake and the pistons, and filter the air before it enters the engine. Since the tractor is often used in places with a lot of dust and sand, these filters must be cleaned and replaced regularly.

If you don't, the filters can become clogged and the engine can't get enough air. This can cause the tractor to smoke and use more fuel.

Checking the air filter.

Turbocharger

Many diesel engines have a turbocharger, which increases the power output of the engine. The turbocharger is a kind of turbine, which is spun by the pressure from the exhaust gas coming out of the pistons. It is automatically lubricated with oil from the oil pump, just like the rest of the engine.

When you start the engine, it takes a while for the turbo to get oil. Therefore, you should not rev the engine as soon as you have started it – this puts strain on the turbo. Wait a while until the turbo has received oil, and it will withstand much more.

Also, make sure to let the engine idle for a while before turning it off. This will give the turbo time to cool down and stop before the oil supply is cut off.

The turbocharger.

2. The tractor

2.1 Engine and drivetrain (2/4)

The diesel system

The diesel is sucked up from the tank by a suction pump. The diesel is then sent to a diesel filter, which removes water and impurities in the diesel. After this, the diesel is clean and can be sent into the high-pressure pump.

From the high-pressure pump, the diesel is pushed through a high-pressure pipe and then to the injection nozzles. There, the diesel is converted into small powder particles that are injected into the cylinders for combustion.

Excess diesel from filters and nozzles is directed back to the tank through return pipes.

Bleeding the diesel system

If you run out of diesel, the suction pump sucks in air instead of diesel. Because the pipes are clogged, the air stays there – preventing the system from sucking in diesel when the tank is full again. The air must be removed – and this is called bleeding the diesel system.

Bleeding is usually done directly on the engine, by operating a pump and a bleed screw. You can see in your tractor's instruction manual how to bleed your system. Many new tractors have automatic bleeding, and then you don't have to do anything at all.

This is where you fill up on diesel.

AdBlue

On newer vehicles that use diesel, AdBlue must be added to a separate tank. This is a substance that converts harmful NOx from diesel exhaust into harmless nitrogen and steam, thereby reducing much of the emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx).

Engine oil

The main functions of engine oil are to lubricate, cool, clean the engine, and keep everything sealed. Always make sure there is enough oil in the engine before you start. Too little oil in the engine can quickly lead to major damage – and it can be very expensive.

As the oil cleans the engine, it will naturally turn black and full of particles over time. You must therefore make sure that you change both the oil and the oil filter as described in the instruction manual.

Checking the oil

After the tractor has been parked for a while, you can check for oil stains on the ground under the tractor. Oil stains indicate a leak. You can also check the oil with an oil dipstick on the oil tank.

If the oil pressure warning light comes on while driving, you must stop and correct the fault before continuing to drive.

The oil dipstick is located under the ring. The ring unscrews like a cork.

The cooling system

The engine has a cooling system that removes excess heat. In tractors with liquid cooling, the coolant conducts the heat to a radiator, where the liquid is cooled. The engine temperature should normally be between 80–90 degrees. You can monitor the temperature on the dashboard.

If the engine is under heavy load, the fan belt breaks or there is a leak in the cooling system, the coolant can start to boil. The same can happen if the radiator becomes clogged and is unable to cool the fluid sufficiently. You can notice that it is boiling by looking at the temperature gauge or by listening to the engine. You should be aware of this, because an overheated engine can be expensive.

The cooling system.

What do you do if the coolant boils?

If the coolant boils, stop the engine immediately and allow it to cool. Do not open the hood or add coolant until the system has cooled. You could suffer serious burns from steam and spillage from the system.

Exhaust

Since the exhaust from the engine contains harmful gases, it must be directed away from the driver's seat. On tractors, it is most common for the exhaust pipe to lead the gas up over the roof of the driver's cab. At the end of the pipe there is a cap or bend that prevents rain from getting into the pipe.

Inside the exhaust pipe there is also a muffler that reduces the noise from the engine.

If the tractor is to be used inside farm buildings, a special exhaust muffler called a spark arrester must be installed. This reduces the risk of fire.

The small bend at the end of the exhaust pipe is intended to direct the exhaust away from the driver's seat.

Be careful!

If you start the tractor in a closed room, make sure there is good ventilation.

2. The tractor

2.1 Engine and drivetrain (3/4)

The drivetrain

The tractor's drivetrain consists of a clutch, gearbox, differential and driveshaft. Through the drivetrain, engine power is transferred from the engine to the drive wheels. In addition, the gearbox has power take-offs that can be used to operate implements. The gearbox also transfers engine power to the tractor's hydraulic pump.

The drive shaft of a tractor viewed from underneath.

The link

The clutch, also called the clutch, is used to connect the engine power to and from the rest of the drivetrain. You use the clutch every time you start or stop the tractor and every time you change gears.

Most tractors have a mechanical clutch. As long as the clutch pedal is not depressed, powerful springs press one or more friction plates against the engine flywheel, creating a mechanical connection to the gearbox. Depressing the clutch pedal stops the connection between the gearbox and the engine.

Some larger tractors have a hydraulic clutch called a converter, instead of a mechanical clutch. The clutch is made by a flow of oil driving a turbine that is connected to the gearbox. Tractors with a hydraulic clutch do not have a clutch pedal.

The link.

Gearbox

The gearbox is responsible for converting engine power into speed or traction. It is also the gearbox that makes it possible to drive forwards and backwards. You can control this using one or more gear levers.

Some gear levers also have a switch that is used to divide each gear into a high and a low position. This is called a split gear and gives you double the number of gears.

On new tractors, it is common to have automatic transmissions or continuously variable transmissions.

The use of the gear levers is described in the tractor's instruction manual. Familiarize yourself with this so that you can make the best use of the tractor's features.

The gears vary from tractor model to tractor model.

Gear oil

• The owner's manual will tell you how often to check and change the oil level in the gearbox. The gearbox uses a special type of oil, so make sure you only use the recommended oil.
• Note that some tractors have combined transmission and hydraulic oil.

The differential

When a tractor turns, the wheels on the outside must roll faster than the wheels on the inside. The differential ensures this. The differential is located on the drive shaft and transfers power from the drivetrain to the drive wheels. When turning, it changes the power distribution so that the outside wheel gets the most rotation.

Differential lock

One disadvantage of the differential is that one wheel can spin in mud or on slippery surfaces if the other wheel is on firm ground. That is why the tractor is equipped with a differential lock, which turns off the differential. When you turn it off, the wheels will rotate equally – and when one wheel has grip, it will help the other one get going.

The differential lock can be manual or automatic. Make sure the lock is not engaged when cornering. This can cause tire wear, make steering difficult, and in the worst case, lead to axle breakage.

Control panel in the cab. The differential lock is controlled from the two red buttons in the rear wheel on this tractor drawing.

Two- and four-wheel drive

Tractors can have either two- or four-wheel drive, but today two-wheel drive tractors are on the way out as they are not well suited for agriculture.

Four-wheel drive improves off-road capability, but also increases fuel consumption. Tractors with four-wheel drive are therefore equipped so that the drive to the front wheels can be disengaged when necessary.

On some tractors, you can engage and disengage the front-wheel drive while driving. On other tractors, however, you must be stationary when engaging the front-wheel drive. You can find the procedure in the instruction manual.

With four-wheel drive, you increase your mobility on rough terrain.

2. The tractor

2.2 Steering and brakes (1/3)

Steering

Different steering systems are used on tractors, such as four-wheel steering, frame steering and front-wheel steering. Front-wheel steering is the most common on agricultural tractors.

The steering usually has a servo system, which makes it easier to turn the steering wheel. The engine must be running for the servo to work. If the engine is off, it will still be possible to steer, but it will be very heavy.

Control of the steering

The servo can either be an auxiliary power, or a hydraulic steering system. Either way, it needs oil to function. You must be aware of this and check it regularly. You can see in the tractor's instruction manual how to check the servo oil.

When you have power steering, it is much easier to turn the steering wheel when the tractor is stationary. But you should avoid doing so – it wears out the power steering system and, in the worst case, can blow components apart. Start the tractor before turning the steering wheel.

It is also important that you regularly check the steering for wear and slack in the steering joints.

Oil!

Check the instruction manual to see which oil your tractor needs.

Do not turn the steering wheel when the tractor is stationary.

2. The tractor

2.2 Steering and brakes (2/3)

Brakes

The brake used to slow down or stop during normal driving is called the service brake. The service brake is the tractor's main braking system. The force from the brake pedal down to the brake at the wheel is transmitted hydraulically. This means that the tractor has a hydraulic braking system.

The braking force between the pedal and the brake is transmitted through a brake circuit. The tractor has two brake circuits, which are independent of each other. This means that the tractor does not lose all braking force if one of the circuits should leak or be damaged.

Tractors with rear-wheel drive only usually have brakes on the rear wheels only. Tractors with four-wheel drive engage the four-wheel drive during braking, so that the front wheels also brake.

The tractor also has a parking brake. This should be powerful enough to hold the tractor still, even on a slope and with a load, when you leave the cab. The parking brake can also function as an emergency brake if the brakes fail.

The parking brake must be applied when leaving the tractor.

Steering brake

Tractors have a steering brake. This means that you have two brake pedals – one for each rear wheel – which allows you to brake only on one of the wheels. This will cause the tractor to turn more to the side that is being braked. The steering brake should therefore only be used when driving at low speed and off-road.

The brake pedals have a mechanical device that can lock them together. This must be engaged when driving on the road so that you get equal braking effect on both rear wheels. Otherwise, you risk ending up off the road or in an oncoming vehicle.

On some tractors, the brake pedals are screwed together so that you can only press both at the same time.

Checking the brake system

Check that the brake fluid reservoir has the correct fluid level and that the warning light goes out when you start the engine.

Press the brake pedal firmly for 10-15 seconds with the engine running. The pedal should not give way. If it does, this may indicate a leak in the brake system.

While driving, full braking effect should be achieved before the pedal is pressed 2/3 of the way down.

Trailer brake

Large and heavy trailers have brakes, which are activated by the brakes in the tractor. When you connect such a trailer, the trailer's brake hose must be connected to the tractor's brake system. Otherwise, the brakes will not work.

It is not dangerous to drive a trailer that is designed without brakes. But it is dangerous to drive a trailer that has brakes if the brakes are not working. Trailers designed with brakes have brakes for a reason.

Heavy trailers without working brakes can push the tractor off course, leading to shearing, skidding or overturning.

Follow the trailer

Since the trailer is behind the tractor, it is not always easy to monitor the trailer's braking performance. However, you need to pay attention to how the trailer behaves. If the trailer pulls to the side when you brake, it may have uneven braking power. If it keeps pushing the tractor, it may have poor braking power.

Remember to connect the brake hose!

2. The tractor

2.3 Tires and chains (1/2)

deck

The tractor's tires are designed to provide friction between the wheel and the ground. Friction is the resistance that stops two surfaces from sliding against each other, in this case the tires and the ground. The quality of the friction affects the tractor's steering, acceleration, and deceleration. Since tractors do not have suspension, the tires are the only thing that can absorb bumps in the road.

The most common type of tire is the radial tire. Radial tires have soft sides, so they give the tractor good suspension. They also have good traction, because the rolling resistance is low.

Drive wheel tires are designed with a block pattern connected by longitudinal ribs. These are called ribbed wheels and are used in agriculture and forestry. It is important for the roadability that the side grooves between the ribs are deep, so that they have good grip on all types of surfaces.

In the tractor's vehicle registration document you will find information about tire dimensions and load capacity.

Ribbed wheel.

On the farm

In agriculture, it is common to have lower pressure in tractor tires so that the ground pressure is distributed more evenly and the soil is not compacted hard. If you are going to drive a shorter distance on the road, you must either fill the tires with more air, or drive extra carefully.

On the road

Tractors that travel along roads and on construction sites are often equipped with what are called industrial tires. These have the same pattern as a regular car tire and are intended for driving along roads. These can also be obtained with winter rubber, which makes it a studless winter tire on a par with regular car tires. The tread depth should be 5 mm.

Industrial tires.

Checking the tires

• Check the air pressure regularly. Correct air pressure increases the life of the tire and provides optimal tire performance.
• If the tire bulges out at the sides, it is low on air. If the wheel is standing on the rim, it is flat. Do not drive with a flat tire!
• Also check the tires for cuts and damage. If you drive with a damaged tire, it may explode.
• Before you drive from the field to the road - check that you are not dragging mud and soil onto the road!

Track width

The track width is the distance between wheels on the same axle. When driving on sloping terrain, it may be worthwhile to increase the tractor's track width. This will reduce the risk of overturning. The track width can be increased in several ways:

• Use twin-mounted wheels, meaning two wheels next to each other on each axle. This will also reduce ground pressure on soft ground.
• Turn the rims over. If you do this, remember to swap the right and left wheels so that the tire tread faces the right way.
• On some types of rims, you can move the wheel sideways on the rim plate.
• Install wheel spacers between the tractor hub and the wheels.

Max width

Max 2.55 meters - If you choose the tractor's track width, you must remember that a tractor must not be wider than 2.55 metres.

Max 3.50 meters - The exception is if you are going to drive within a radius of 50 km measured as the crow flies from where the company that owns, leases or rents the vehicle is domiciled.

Max 4.10 meters - A dispensation with a time limit may be granted for the transport of agricultural machinery with a greater width, but not for a width greater than 4.10 meters.

Please note that if you are wider than 2.60 meters, you must have a yellow flashing light.

Tractor with twin mounted wheels at the rear.

ATTENTION!

If you have changed wheels, make sure to retighten the lug nuts after a while. Otherwise, you risk the lug nuts loosening and the wheel falling off. Loose lug nuts can also damage the rim and wheel bolts.

Hub

The hub is the part the wheel is attached to and around which the wheel rotates.

Chain

On snowy or slippery surfaces, you must have chains on the tractor's wheels. There are several types of chains, for different uses. Some are designed for on-road driving, and others for off-road driving. As the driver, it is your responsibility to ensure that the wheels have good traction.

Fitting a chain to a tractor wheel for the first time can be challenging, so it's a good idea to practice fitting chains before you actually need to use them for the first time.

How to use a chain correctly

• Check that the chains fit, that the links are not worn, and make sure you install the chain locks correctly so that the chains do not fall off during use.
• Do not leave any chain ends hanging loose, this could damage the tractor or people nearby. Use string or shackles to secure loose ends.
• Avoid a chain that is too tight. If the chain is too tight around the tire, you will wear out both the tire and the chain faster than necessary.
• Avoid speeds above 35 km/h. If you drive on hard surfaces, you will wear out the chain faster at high speeds, while also increasing diesel consumption.
• Avoid long trips on asphalt.
• Snow chains must always have at least one cross link in contact with the ground.

You should practice putting on a chain. That way it will be easier when you actually have to put on a chain.

ATTENTION!

Previously, it was mandatory to carry chains during all driving during the studded tire season, regardless of the weather or road conditions. Now, a change has been made that states that chains are only required when driving on roads that are covered in snow or ice is expected.

2. The tractor

2.4 Lighting equipment (1/2)

Lighting equipment

For the sake of road safety and your own safety, it is important that all lighting equipment on the tractor is in good working order.

Maintenance of the lights

Tractor headlights quickly become damp and condense. This can cause important parts to rust and the reflector to become dull. This will then cause the light to not reflect as well. Therefore, make sure that the screws are in place and tightened correctly, and that the seals between the headlight and the tractor are in good condition. The headlight lenses must be free of cracks and breaks. If these things are in order, the light will work much better over time.

If you get water or condensation in the headlights, this must be removed immediately. Defective light bulbs must be replaced with the same type of bulb.

Headlights are often halogen bulbs, which remain the same brightness throughout their lifespan. When changing a headlight bulb, make sure it is seated correctly so that the light does not dazzle oncoming traffic. Do not touch the bulb glass as grease from your fingers can reduce the brightness.

The driving lights are in order here.

Lighting equipment

Most tractors have the following lighting equipment:

• Two white parking lights at the front
• Two white or yellow dipped headlights at the front
• Two white or yellow high beams at the front
• Four orange turn signals, two in front and two in the back
• Two red taillights
• Two red rear brake lights
• White rear license plate light
• Two round or square red reflectors at the back
• One or more adjustable work lights

Most tractor trailers have tail lights, brake lights, turn signals and triangular red reflectors at the rear.

Slow-moving vehicle!

Tractors and trailers with a design speed of up to 30 km/h must also have a large, red triangular warning sign at the rear that warns of slow-moving vehicles.

The lights are controlled from inside the cab.

2. The tractor

2.5 The cab (1/2)

Cab

The cab of a modern tractor is well-designed as a workplace. To make it both practical and comfortable, emphasis has been placed on noise reduction, ventilation, visibility and heating.

• The control handles and levers are color-coded to make them easier to recognize.
• The driver's seat is sprung for comfort. Some seats can also swivel around, making it easier to see behind.
• It is also possible to tilt the steering wheel on many tractors to make it easier to move in and out of the driver's seat.
• Large windows and mirrors provide good visibility and fewer blind spots.

Tractors designed for speeds exceeding 15 km/h and with a closed cab must have at least two mirrors, one of which must be located outside on the left side.

On tractors weighing less than 500 kg, there are no requirements for a cab, roll bar or protective frame.

The cab of a new tractor.

2. The tractor

2.6 Power take-off and hydraulics (1/2)

Power take-off

At the rear of the tractor there is a power take-off for operating various implements such as a round baler, snow blower, field sprayer, etc. The gearbox drives the power take-off. Engagement and disengagement are done with levers in the cab.

Security

Power take-offs and power transmissions to implements must be shielded to prevent clothing, arms and legs from getting caught in the rotating parts. Power take-offs that are not in use must also be shielded.

Power take-off with shielding.

Be careful.

Several fatalities have occurred because clothing has been pulled into rotating power take-offs.

Hydraulics

In addition to the power take-off, the tractor also has a hydraulic system. Hydraulics is the transfer of energy using fluid, and the hydraulic pump is driven by the gearbox.

The three-point hitch for implements at the rear of the tractor is raised and lowered hydraulically. The hydraulics can also power the steering and transfer braking force to the trailer.

The hydraulic outlets can be used for equipment powered by oil pressure, such as log splitters and trailer tippers.

Hydraulic system.

Hydraulic system check

• Check that there are no leaks in hoses, pipes and connections.
• Check that there is enough oil in the hydraulic oil reservoir.
• Clean or replace filters as instructed in the instruction manual.

2. The tractor

2.7 Security check

Security check

By performing regular safety checks, you ensure that your tractor is in proper working order before driving. You also avoid unnecessary costs resulting from driving with damaged equipment.

Check this daily:

• Oil level – check the level in the engine and hydraulics.
• Fluid levels – check the brake fluid and coolant levels. Also check the windshield washer fluid.
• Leaks – check for any leaks. Remember to check under the tractor as well.
• Tires – check air pressure, tread and look for any damage to the tires themselves.
• Lights – check that the lights are working according to vehicle regulations.
• Windows and mirrors – these should be clean so you have good visibility. Adjust as needed.
• Number plates – check that they are legible.
• Diesel – do you have enough in the tank?

Check if you have enough windshield washer fluid.

Check if you have enough engine oil.

Function check

After making sure that everything is working properly during the daily check, you can perform a functional check of the tractor's brakes and steering. You should check that the brakes are working properly and that the tractor does not pull to the side when braking. Also check that the steering does not have too much play and that the servo is working satisfactorily.

Death march

Steering wheel play means that you can turn the steering wheel a little without the wheels moving. A little play is okay, but you can't have so much play that the tractor becomes difficult to steer.

Periodic maintenance

It pays to be good at cleaning your tractor regularly. Remember that it will be easier to detect leaks and faults on a tractor that is clean than on one that is covered in soil, oil and dirt.

Some inspections and maintenance should be performed after a certain number of operating hours – check the instruction manual for when this should be done. It is recommended that you have such maintenance performed at a workshop.

This should be done during periodic maintenance:

• Cleaning or replacing filters for air, diesel, engine oil and hydraulics.
• Changing oils and brake fluid.
• Changing antifreeze or checking freezing point.
• Checking the battery and terminal clamps.
• Tightening the fan belt.
• Lubrication of moving parts on the tractor.
• Retightening wheel nuts after changing wheels.
• Checking the trailer hitch.

Kill two birds with one stone!

Through good maintenance of your tractor, you save the environment from unnecessary pollution and your wallet from unnecessary expenses.

Cleaning the air filter.

2. The tractor

2.8 Summary

Summary

We have reviewed this in chapter 2:

• The tractor's various components, including the engine and drivetrain, steering and brakes, tires and lighting equipment, and their maintenance.
• Power take-off and hydraulics, which operate implements.
• Checklist for safety checks and periodic maintenance.

In the next chapter we will look at various equipment for tractors.

3. Equipment for the tractor

3.0 Introduction

Introduction

As a tractor driver, you must handle various equipment for your tractor. In this chapter, we will take a closer look at what kind of equipment this is and the dangers of driving with such equipment.

This chapter is about:

• 3.1 Safety equipment and protective equipment
• 3.2 Miscellaneous equipment
• 3.3 Hazards when using equipment
• 3.4 Using trailers and tippers
• 3.5 Load capacity and load securing
• 3.6 Summary

3. Equipment for the tractor

3.1 Safety equipment and protective equipment (1/2)

Security equipment

Driver protection in the form of a roll bar or cab is mandatory in all tractors. From 1 July 2020, the use of seat belts in tractors is mandatory. The exceptions are when driving on frozen water, or when working where you have to get in and out of the tractor constantly.

Transport of people

Most tractors are registered for only one person, but there are also tractors that are registered for multiple passengers. You can find information about this in the vehicle registration document.

It is permitted to transport up to two people in a rear-mounted box. This box must be sturdy, and the passengers must be seated securely. There must be protection from the tractor wheels, and the frames of the box must be at least 40 cm high.

It is also permitted to transport up to 4 people in a trailer if it is pulled by a tractor that is not designed for speeds over 30 km/h. In this case, the trailer must have a front wall that is at least 1 meter high, and frames that are at least 40 cm above seating height.

Transport of animals

Tractors and trailers that are occasionally used to transport, for example, sheep to and from pasture, must be approved by the district veterinarian. If the vehicle is to be used regularly for animal transport, approval from the traffic police is required, and the transport must be carried out in accordance with regulations on the transport of live animals.

This transport box is used for transporting animals.

Protective equipment

For your own safety, it is important that you use the correct protective equipment and clothing.

• Working with a tractor requires you to get in and out of the cab frequently. You should dress according to the weather and temperature, and both overalls and thermal suits may be appropriate. The clothing should be orange or yellow fluorescent and reflective to make you more visible.
• To avoid hearing damage, you must wear hearing protection. Since hearing protection dampens sound impressions from the surroundings, you must pay close attention to your mirrors and around the tractor.
• Work gloves are necessary to avoid injuries to your hands. They also keep your hands warm. Safety shoes or boots must be worn to avoid injuries to your feet if you are unfortunate enough to get your foot caught.

Hearing protection is important to protect your hearing.

3. Equipment for the tractor

3.2 Miscellaneous equipment (1/2)

Trailer and tipper

Trailer

Using a trailer is a practical way to expand your tractor's carrying capacity. There are many different types of tractor trailers.

Tip

If the trailer has a tipper, you can quickly empty the load by tipping the trailer backwards.

Tail and plow

Tail

The tail is used for collecting and transporting hay, undried grass or stones, and is often mounted on the back of the tractor.

Plow

Plows are used to turn the soil in the field.

Winch and crane

Winch

A winch makes it easier to haul in heavy loads. A tractor with a winch is most often used to haul in timber.

Here the winch is used to haul timber.

Crane

Cranes are used to lift or move heavy loads.

Timber trailer with crane.

3. Equipment for the tractor

3.3 Hazards when using equipment (1/3)

Danger of falling and tipping over

Steep

The risk of stalling increases if the tractor is rear-heavy due to rear-mounted implements or loads. You are also at risk of stalling if you drive uphill or accelerate too quickly. To reduce the risk of stalling when driving with rear-mounted implements, you can use front weights. At least 20% of the tractor's weight should rest on the steering wheels.

If you notice that the tractor is starting to skid, immediately depress the clutch pedal. This will remove traction from the rear wheels and the tractor may fall back onto its front wheels.

If you drive with heavy front-mounted equipment, there is a risk of tipping forward. If the tractor only has brakes on the rear wheels, you will lose all of the tractor's braking effect if it tips forward. The rear wheels must be on the ground to brake the vehicle. To avoid tipping forward, you can use weights on the rear rims or use fluid-filled wheels. Otherwise, you should read the terrain carefully so that you do not drive on slopes or in depressions in the terrain.

Tractor with front weights.

Overturn

You will be at risk of tipping over if you drive along steep slopes, especially if you also have too much steering on the tractor. In this case, it may help to turn the steering wheel so that you can straighten the front wheels again.

To reduce the risk of tipping over on sloping terrain, you can increase the track width or use twin-mounted wheels.

Note!

Do not jump out of a tractor that is overturning, you could be crushed to death! Hold on to the steering wheel – the cab or the overhead guard will protect you.

Connecting and disconnecting equipment

When connecting or disconnecting equipment from the tractor, it is important to wear safety shoes and gloves. This will reduce the risk of injury if your hands and feet get caught. When working in front of or behind the tractor, make sure it is well secured against rolling.

Connecting equipment

Make sure that the power take-off is not rotating. The engine should be switched off. Alternatively, the gear that connects the power to the power take-off can be put in neutral. The power take-off should always be shielded.

Many tractors have quick couplings for implements. The quick coupling is connected to the three-point linkage, and the implements are connected to the quick coupling. The advantage of this is that you can drive the tractor straight onto the implement mounts. This makes connection easier and reduces the risk of crushing.

When connecting equipment to the three-point hitch, remember to insert cotter pins into the mounting bolts. Otherwise, the bolts may come loose while working with the implement.

Here you see the three-point hitch on a tractor.

Here is a plow connected to the three-point hitch.

Disconnecting equipment

When disconnecting equipment, lower it all the way to the ground. Otherwise, it could fall and injure you or others around you. Quick-coupled equipment can be disconnected using a release in the cab.

Crushing hazard

The equipment to be connected or disconnected is equipped with a number of warning signs for the risk of crushing. Also check the equipment's instruction manual for more information about the risk of crushing. Crushing injuries due to careless connection and disconnection and improper use of such equipment are unfortunately quite common in agriculture.

3. Equipment for the tractor

3.3 Hazards when using equipment (2/3)

Driving with rear-mounted equipment

If you are driving with equipment on the back of your tractor, you need to consider the extra space you need when turning. Rear-mounted equipment creates an overhang that turns in the opposite direction to the way the tractor is turning. The overhang can hit people, vehicles or buildings if you turn without thinking. It is especially important to be aware of this when turning off a road.

When driving with equipment, you should lower it as low as possible to reduce the risk of skidding.

Parking with equipment

If you are parking a tractor with attached equipment, the equipment must be lowered to the ground before leaving the tractor. Otherwise, you risk the equipment falling and injuring children or others.

Rear-mounted tail

Make sure there are no people behind you when reversing with a rear-mounted tail. When driving on the road, the tines on the tail must be raised high in case you are hit from behind. If you cannot raise them at least 1.90 meters above the ground, you must mount a protective bar.

Driving with front-mounted equipment

If the tractor has front-mounted equipment with a load, the risk of tipping forward increases. You can reduce the risk by installing weights in the rear three-point linkage or driving with weights on the rear wheels. Liquid-filled rear wheels can also be a solution.

If the tractor becomes too light at the rear, traction is reduced and you may have problems braking – especially if the tractor only has brakes on the rear wheels.

High front-mounted equipment can also make the tractor unstable laterally. This increases the risk of overturning. Therefore, you must drive with the equipment as low as possible when carrying a load.

When driving on the road with equipment without a load, you should raise it high enough that the tractor's lights are visible to other road users. Front-mounted forks or silo spears should be dismantled or turned 90 degrees in relation to the roadway.

The tractor may become unstable in the lateral direction if front-mounted equipment is raised high.

The load must be in a trailer

If you are transporting potato boxes, round bales or other cargo on public roads, it must be transported in the back of a trailer and secured properly.

3. Equipment for the tractor

3.4 Using a trailer and tipper (1/2)

Connecting and disconnecting a trailer

Connection

The tractor is equipped with its own towbar for a trailer that can be raised and lowered hydraulically.

To connect the trailer, you must first secure the trailer with wheel chocks to prevent it from rolling. Then, you must back up to the drawbar on the trailer and raise the towbar. The towbar must be lifted all the way up so that it locks, otherwise the trailer may come loose.

Then connect the hydraulic hoses for the brakes and tipper, and the connector for the trailer lights. Remember to remove the wheel chocks afterwards.

If the trailer has adjustable parking feet, they must be raised before driving.

Disconnection

Uncoupling should be done on a flat surface. Secure the trailer with wheel chocks, lower the parking jack and disconnect the hoses. To release the towbar, first raise it to the top position and then lower it.

Trailer attached to the towbar.

Towing with a trailer

Reversing with a trailer can be challenging and takes some practice. It is a good idea to practice on a flat, large area. Practice steering with as little steering wheel movement as possible. This will give you the best control of the tractor. Practice turning the steering wheel and see which way the trailer goes.

If rearward visibility is restricted by frames or cargo, it may be necessary to have an assistant when reversing. Make sure that the assistant is always visible in the mirror or through the side window so that you can hear any warnings. On roads open to general traffic, having an assistant is mandatory. In other places, you must assess the need yourself.

Remember:

• Look ahead frequently when reversing.
• Always keep your speed low.

Use of tips

When the tipper is raised, the load's center of gravity is raised. This increases the risk of tipping. Therefore, you must ensure that the vehicle is standing firmly and on level ground before raising the tipper. The tipper must be raised slowly so that the load can flow smoothly off the loading platform. This will avoid unpredictable movements in the vehicle.

The loading platform should be lowered slowly before driving. A raised tipper gives poor rearward visibility and increases the risk of tipping.

If you have to work under a raised loading platform, it is important that you use the tipper support. This will prevent you from being pinched between the tipper and the vehicle if the tipper slides down. You should only use the tipper support under an empty loading platform.

The tip itself is marked with a reminder of the pinch hazard.

Stuck cargo!

When tipping clay and similar materials, it is easy for the material to get stuck before suddenly releasing. This can create unexpected forces. If the material only gets stuck on one side of the plane, the trailer can become sideways and tip over.

You may also experience uneven unloading of cargo if the cargo has become stuck or frozen in some places.

You must always be prepared for such situations when using tips.

3. Equipment for the tractor

3.5 Load capacity and load securing (1/3)

Driving with a load

The most common type of trailer for a tractor is a semi-trailer. A semi-trailer has one axle or one bogie, and transfers some of its weight to the tractor by leaning on the hitch. Since the trailer affects the tractor with its weight, it is important that the load is placed correctly on the trailer.

If the load is placed too far forward on the trailer, the trailer transfers a lot of weight to the tractor's rear wheels. This increases the risk of stalling. Always ensure that at least 20% of the weight carried by the tractor's wheels rests on the front wheels.

If the load is placed too far back on the trailer, it becomes rear-heavy. It can then tilt, lifting the rear wheels of the tractor. This will reduce the tractor's grip. When the tractor has poor grip, the wheels can lock up completely during braking, causing the tractor to skid. On a hill, the rear wheels can lose so much grip that you will have trouble moving forward.

The center of gravity of the load should therefore be just in front of or directly above the trailer's wheels.

Trailer with bogie.

Bogie

A bogie is two wheels in a row. Three wheels in a row are called a triple bogie.

The trailer in this picture has a bogie:

Loading capacity

To find out how much load you can carry on the trailer, you need to look at the tractor and trailer's vehicle registration documents. There you will find information about permitted total weights, kerb weights and permitted axle loads on the different axles.

It is a criminal offense to overload a tractor or trailer. This can result in a fine and the confiscation of your driver's license. The owner of the vehicle may also be charged an overloading fee.

It is therefore important that you try to calculate the load as accurately as possible. You can use weight tables for cargo and gravel and similar as an aid here. If you are transporting flour or power feed, the packing slip or consignment note will tell you the weight. In some places, the Norwegian Road Administration has control stations that you can drive through to weigh your vehicle.

The Norwegian Road Administration has several control stations where you can check your weight.

How heavy a trailer can the tractor tow?

The 1.5 rule

On a tractor that goes faster than 30 km/h, the trailer cannot weigh more than 1.5 times as much as the tractor. So a 6000 kg tractor can basically pull a trailer that weighs 9000 kg, because 6000 x 1.5 = 9000. However, it is not that simple:

Because as you remember, the trailer transfers some weight to the tractor. If the 6,000 kg tractor gets 2,000 kg from the trailer, the weight of the tractor becomes 8,000 kg. Then it can suddenly pull a trailer weighing a whopping 12,000 kg, because 8,000 kg x 1.5 = 12,000.

Here, 2000 kg are transferred from the trailer to the tractor so that the tractor's actual weight is 8000 kg.

Engine power

On a tractor that goes faster than 30 km/h, you must also check in the vehicle registration document whether the engine is strong enough to pull the trailer. The engine must have at least 7 horsepower per ton, or 5.14 kilowatts per ton of total weight. So for the tractor to be allowed to pull the 12,000 kg trailer, or 12 tons, it must have 12 tons x 7 horsepower = 84 horsepower.

Trailer requirements

The trailer must have suspension, brake force regulation according to load, underrun protection and emergency braking, i.e. the brakes must be applied automatically if the trailer falls off. Trailer equipment must also be approved for speeds above 40 km/h.

Trailer without brakes

Regulations for 30 km/h tractor

On a tractor with a maximum speed of 30 km/h, the ratio between the axle load on the tractor and the trailer determines how heavy a trailer you can have.

The load on the trailer axle cannot exceed the tractor's current axle load, i.e. the weight of the tractor including all weight from the trailer. The total weight of the trailer must not exceed 3999 kg.

We can take an example where we have a small tractor of 2500 kg. If we connect a trailer without brakes weighing 3999 kg, and 25% of the trailer weight is on the tractor's drawbar, the tractor will have a current load of about 2500 + 1000 = 3500 kg, while there is about 3000 kg left on the trailer's axle. Here the axle load from the trailer is not greater than the tractor's current axle load, and we can tow the trailer.

This trailer cannot weigh more than 3999 kg.

Regulations for tractors with speeds of 30-40 km/h

The regulations state that the actual weight of the vehicle combination must not exceed the motor vehicle's permissible total weight. The sum of the weight of the tractor and the trailer with load must not exceed the permissible total weight stated in the tractor's vehicle registration document.

On most tractors under 100 hp, the difference between the permissible total weight and the unladen weight is between 1500 and 4000 kg. It is this difference that tells you how large a trailer without brakes you can drive. Without any additional weight, you can pull a trailer between 1500 and 4000 kg.

If you have a tractor with a dead weight of 6,000 kg and a permitted total weight of 9,000 kg, the trailer without brakes can weigh a maximum of 3,000 kg.

3. Equipment for the tractor

3.5 Load capacity and load securing (2/3)

Load securing

It is important that the load is well secured so that it does not fall off, drag onto the road or make unnecessary noise. Also remember that loads with a high center of gravity increase the risk of tipping.

If you are transporting loose material, such as sand or gravel, you can cover the load with a tarpaulin. This way you prevent dust from swirling up and reducing visibility for other road users. Also make sure that your loading sills are high enough to prevent the loose material from spilling over onto the road.

If you are transporting general cargo, you must clamp the load against the walls using planks, blocks or pallets. This is called stamping, or locking the load. You can also tie the load down with straps.

If you are driving pallet trucks with bags, you should use lashing straps with jack tensioners.

Is this load of round bales properly secured?

The fuses must withstand this!

• If the tractor is registered for 30 km/h or lower, the load must be secured with at least 50% of the load's weight in all directions.
• If the tractor is registered for 40 km/h or higher, the load must be secured with at least 80% of the load's weight in the direction of travel, and at least 50% to the sides and rear.

Long and wide load

The maximum legal vehicle width on the road is 2.55 meters. If the rear view in the mirrors is obstructed by cargo or frames on the trailer, the mirrors on the tractor must be extended.

Loads must not protrude more than 1 meter in front of the vehicle. If you are going to drive such loads, you must have a dispensation from the road authority. Loads that protrude from the front or more than 1 meter from the rear must be marked.

If such transports take place regularly, approved marking in the form of a cylinder with red and white stripes must be used. Otherwise, it is sufficient that the markings on the front and back are clear.

When driving on the road, goods must not extend beyond the sides of the vehicle. However, the road authority may grant an exemption for this. If the load protrudes more than 15 cm from the sides of the vehicle, you must use signs with diagonal yellow and red stripes. Otherwise, you can use other markings.

If the width of the vehicle and load is more than 2.60 meters, you must have a rotating yellow warning light on the roof. Widths over 3 meters require a support vehicle in front with a rotating yellow warning light and the sign WIDE TRANSPORT.

Agricultural machinery and tractors with attached equipment can be moved over short distances without a support vehicle if it is part of normal operation, as long as the width is not more than 3.5 meters. In this case, rotating lights are not required, but the vehicle must be marked WIDE TRANSPORT.

3. Equipment for the tractor

3.6 Summary

Summary

We have reviewed this in chapter 3:

• Most tractors are registered for only one person.
• It is permitted to transport up to two people in a rear-mounted box, and up to four people in a trailer.
• Working in agriculture is risky, and you are therefore required to use the correct protective equipment.
• Using various equipment, such as trailers and plows, carries a higher risk of accidents. Therefore, it is important to learn how to handle and maintain such equipment.
• Loads should be positioned so that they do not cause a tipping hazard or make the tractor unstable to drive. Loads should also be secured well with the correct safety equipment.
• The loading capacity of the tractor and trailer can be found in the vehicle registration documents. Overloading is a criminal offence.
• The maximum legal vehicle width on the road is 2.55 meters. Loads must not protrude more than 1 meter in front of the vehicle, or more than 15 cm from the sides of the vehicle. If you are going to drive such loads, you must have a dispensation from the road authority. There will also be special requirements for marking this load.

In the next chapter, we will look at our physical and mental characteristics and limitations as drivers.

4. The human in traffic

4.0 Introduction

The human in traffic

Our physical and mental characteristics and limitations have a lot to do with driving. It is therefore important to be aware of these limitations as a road user. In this chapter, we will take a closer look at the challenges we face in traffic and how our senses and ways of thinking affect our ability to drive safely and confidently.

This chapter is about:

• 4.1 The driving process
• 4.2 Assessing speed and distance
• 4.3 Mirrors and blind spots
• 4.4 Suitability
• 4.5 Reaction time and inattention time
• 4.6 Summary

4. The human in traffic

4.1 The driving process (1/3)

Traffic situations and the driving process

Traffic situation is an important concept in traffic training. A traffic situation consists of you and your vehicle, other road users, the road, the road system and signage, visibility and driving conditions, and the interaction between these factors.

Traffic situations vary from the very simple and clear to the complicated and confusing. In a complicated traffic situation, there is a lot you have to deal with and large amounts of information that your brain has to process. We call this process the driving process , and it describes what you as a driver do in traffic from the moment something happens until you have reacted.

• You sense – Your eye receives information, but your brain has not yet processed it.
• You perceive what you have sensed – Your brain recognizes what you see and what is happening,
• You decide what to do – You consider different solutions for further action and choose.
• You act – You implement what you have decided to do.

Maneuvering a tractor through this roundabout presents many traffic situations.

4. The human in traffic

4.1 The driving process (2/3)

1. Sense

The first thing you do is sense.

When you drive, you need to be aware of what is happening around you so that you can detect potential hazards and plan your driving in the best possible way. You are constantly receiving sensory impressions from your surroundings, and in this regard, vision is the most important sense. Vision accounts for almost 90% of the sensory impressions when we drive.

You FEEL that something is wrong. But it takes a few milliseconds before you PERCEIVE what is actually happening!

Central vision/sharp vision

• looks forward and has a viewing angle of 3–5 degrees
• discovers details
• works best in good light

The peripheral vision

• looks out to the sides with a visual angle of almost 180 degrees when we are standing still
• perceives movements and changes in light
• perceives the surroundings, shadows and silhouettes

Sharp vision and peripheral vision.

2. Perceive

When you have sensed something, you must perceive what you have sensed.

Perceiving means interpreting and understanding the sensory impressions you receive in the traffic situation.

Experience

To be able to interpret and understand, you must have knowledge and acquire experience. Experience allows you to recognize situations and thus be able to more quickly predict how the situation will play out and how you yourself should act in relation to this.

How quickly do you perceive what you see?

If you are in a complicated traffic situation with many and rather unclear sensory impressions (for example, if you are driving in fog), you will take longer to perceive the situation and what you need to do. You should therefore adapt your speed to the conditions so that you have enough time to perceive what is happening.

The brain processes the visual impression – and PERCEIVES what is happening.

3. Decide

Once you have perceived the traffic situation, your brain can begin to consider the various options for further action.

• You assess the situation based on previous experiences and must consider different options and what outcome you think they will have.
• You decide which actions you want to take.

Previous experience will also be an advantage in the decision-making process. The more similar situations you have experienced in the past, the easier and faster you will make good decisions.

Should you brake or steer away? If you have extensive experience in traffic, chances are you know what you should do and can therefore DECIDE faster.

4. Shop

Once you have decided what you want to do, the next step is to carry out the action.

The execution of the action is sometimes easy and sometimes difficult. If something happens when the speed is high or the road is bad, we will often not be able to act correctly.

Factors such as weight, engine power and steering systems also affect how the tractor responds to your actions. For example, a heavily loaded tractor will have longer braking distances than an unloaded tractor. This must be taken into account when driving.

Automated actions

To become a good driver, it is necessary to practice automatic actions. When you have done something many times, such as changing gears or braking, you eventually perform the action automatically – without having to think about how to do it. Then you will spend less time and concentration on acting, and you free up capacity to follow the traffic and avoid dangerous situations.

You decide to brake and ACT by stepping on the brake.

4. The human in traffic

4.2 Assessing speed and distance (1/2)

Assessing the speed and distance of others

Studies show that we as drivers often believe that the distance to oncoming vehicles is longer than it actually is. For example, we can be fooled by the size of the vehicles, believing that small vehicles are further away than large vehicles.

We also believe that the speed of oncoming vehicles is lower than it actually is. At distances of more than 300 meters, it is impossible to determine whether an oncoming vehicle is traveling at 20 or 80 km/h.

How far is it to the car?

Calculate time

If you are going to cross another lane, you must consider whether you should stop for oncoming traffic, or whether you have time to cross before you become an obstacle. In this case, you must consider both your speed and the distance to oncoming traffic. It is important to remember that oncoming traffic may be faster than you think, and closer than you think. If in doubt, you should stop and wait.

4. The human in traffic

4.3 Mirrors and blind spots (1/2)

Mirrors and blind spots

The tractor has mirrors both inside and outside. You should check your mirrors regularly. Trailers and implements will often obscure the view in the tractor's inside mirrors, making the outside mirrors extra important.

Exterior mirrors are often slightly curved to provide a wider field of vision. This makes the image slightly smaller, and vehicles in the mirror may appear further away than they are. It is dangerous to overestimate the distance to other traffic.

Look in the mirror before turning

Two-wheelers are small and agile, and can pull alongside other traffic. They can be difficult to see and hear from the tractor cab. When turning, check that there are no vehicles between you and the road you are turning into.

If you are going to turn left at an intersection, you often have to cross the oncoming lane. Then you have to look in your left mirror and check that no one driving behind you is about to pass you. When driving a tractor, you are often overtaken, and you have to be aware of this when turning.

Exterior mirror on tractor.

Blind spots

There is a blind spot on the side of the tractor. Blind spots are areas around the tractor that you cannot see in the mirror but that you must check directly. Turn your head and look in the blind spots before turning or changing your position in the roadway.

If rear visibility is limited due to trailer load and you cannot get adequate blind spot control by looking over your shoulder, lean forward when looking in the mirror. This will give you better control of your blind spots.

If you have to stop for a pedestrian crossing or a red light before turning, there is an additional risk to road users on the side of the tractor. They may have pulled up next to you while you were waiting for the green light.

Here we see a demonstration of a moped in a blind spot.

4. The human in traffic

4.4 Suitability (1/3)

Suitability

Your ability to perceive the traffic situation correctly and act in time is significantly impaired if you are tired, ill, stressed or under the influence of drugs or medication. If you feel unwell due to medication, illness or other things, you may overlook important information in traffic and make the wrong decisions.

Therefore, the Road Traffic Act states that you must leave the tractor standing if you are not fit to drive safely. Fitness is about how you feel, and whether you are able to perceive traffic and make good traffic decisions.

The typical reasons for lack of fitness can be divided into two categories:

• Alcohol, other drugs and dangerous drugs. Dangerous drugs have a red warning triangle on the package.
• Fatigue, illness, uneasiness, stress and mood

If you feel unwell, you might want to leave the tractor alone.

Road Traffic Act Section 21

No one may drive or attempt to drive a vehicle when he is in such a condition that he cannot be considered fit to drive safely, whether this is due to him being under the influence of alcohol or other intoxicating or narcotic substances, or to him being ill, weakened, tired or fatigued, or due to other circumstances.

Alcohol, other drugs and dangerous drugs

Alcohol limit

In Norway, the blood alcohol limit is 0.2, and it is illegal to drive a motor vehicle if your blood alcohol level exceeds this. It is also illegal to drive with a blood alcohol level lower than this if your blood alcohol level makes you unfit to drive.

Alcohol in the blood is burned at a rate of 0.10–0.15 per mille per hour. The burn rate cannot be accelerated by coffee, physical activity or other factors. Only time can reduce the blood alcohol level.

The risk of being killed in traffic is almost a thousand times higher at a blood alcohol level above 1.5 compared to a blood alcohol level of 0.5.

Drugs and medicines

It is obvious that the use of narcotics and dangerous drugs does not belong with driving, but the problem is still quite large. Note that drugs that affect the central nervous system are most often marked with a red triangle on the packaging.

In 2016, driving under the influence of alcohol was a contributing factor to 23% of fatal accidents on Norwegian roads (Source: Norwegian Public Roads Administration's in-depth analyses of fatal accidents).

Roadside breathalyzer test.

Motor vehicle

Motor vehicle is a collective term for all vehicles that are propelled by their own engine.

Cars, mopeds, tractors, motorized lawn mowers and balance bikes such as Segways are all considered motor vehicles. Electric bicycles are not defined as motor vehicles.

Mandatory abstinence

If your job is to drive a tractor, you must comply with the compulsory abstinence law. It prohibits drinking alcohol 8 hours before going to work. You must also not be under the influence when you arrive at work or during working hours.

If you are convicted of driving under the influence, you will face a prison sentence and a heavy fine. You will also have your driver's license revoked, and a period of ineligibility for when you can get it back.

If something were to happen, it could be very expensive, as insurance companies do not necessarily cover accidents that occur while driving under the influence.

And last but not least – it can be very dangerous for you and the people around you.

Remember that you must wait at least 8 hours before driving, even if you only drank one beer.

4. The human in traffic

4.4 Suitability (2/3)

Fatigue and illness

Fatigue

Lack of sleep can significantly impair your driving skills, just like alcohol. Being awake for over 20 hours is equivalent to a blood alcohol level of 0.8. Sleep is the only thing that helps when you're tired, so take a 15-minute nap rather than putting yourself and others in traffic at unnecessary risk.

Accident statistics show that fatigue is a contributing factor in around 10% of fatal traffic accidents (Source: Norwegian Public Roads Administration's in-depth analyses of fatal accidents).

Disease

A cold, headache, nausea or other everyday ailments can lead to such reduced attention that you should leave the tractor alone.

Stress and mood

If you feel stressed, angry, sad or distracted, be aware that this can affect your attention and your decisions when driving. Take a short break, drink some water, and calm down. This will make your drive safer.

When driving in crowded areas, you need to be especially vigilant. Stress and poor judgment can lead to dangerous situations.

4. The human in traffic

4.5 Reaction time and inattention time (1/2)

Reaction time

Reaction time is the time it takes from the moment you sense a danger until you have perceived it and decided how to act. Reaction time consists of the first three of the four steps we looked at in the driving process – sensing, perceiving and deciding.

We estimate that the reaction time is usually about one second, but the following factors can significantly extend the reaction time:

• The traffic situation is complex and you have to keep track of many factors at the same time.
• Visibility is poor (darkness, fog, snow).
• You lack experience or experience the situation as unfamiliar.
• You are getting distracted.
• You are under the influence of drugs or feel tired and unmotivated.

When visibility is poor, reaction time can increase.

Inattention time

There is a period of time between the time a potential hazard arises and when you notice it. This phase is called the inattention period.

In a simple traffic situation, the inattention period should be short, but if you are unfocused and not paying attention – or find yourself in a complex traffic situation where there is a lot to keep track of, it can take quite a while from the time a danger arises until you notice it.

Be careful!

Pay attention to traffic and try to recognize situations that could become dangerous. A good tractor driver is aware of the limitations of his senses and is constantly alert and ready to act if something goes wrong.

In cities and densely populated areas, you will often encounter situations that require special vigilance. First of all, look for cars, cyclists and pedestrians who are moving. Then, you should try to detect places and circumstances where someone might move and conflict with your vehicle.

Get your cell phone ready before you drive.

4. The human in traffic

4.6 Summary

Summary

We have reviewed this in chapter 4:

• The traffic situation consists of you and your vehicle, other road users, the road, the road system and signage, visibility and driving conditions, and the interaction between these factors.
• The driving process describes what you as a driver do in traffic and consists of the following four steps: 1) sense, 2) perceive, 3) decide and 4) act. In a complicated and confusing traffic situation, you spend more time on the different steps in the driving process than in a simple situation.
• The Road Traffic Act states that you must not drive or attempt to drive a vehicle when you are in such a condition that you cannot be considered fit to drive safely.
• In Norway, it is illegal to drive a car if your blood alcohol concentration is over 0.2 per mille.
• Being awake for over 20 hours is equivalent to a blood alcohol level of 0.8.
• Reaction time is the time that passes from when you sense a danger until you have perceived it and decided how to act, while inattention time is the time from when a possible danger arises until you sense it.
• Alcohol, illness, stress or lack of sleep can greatly prolong reaction time.

In the next chapter, we will look at the responsibilities that come with being a driver.

5. Responsibility

5.0 Introduction

Responsibility

Driving a tractor comes with great responsibility, and you must be aware of your duties as both the owner and driver of a vehicle. You must be familiar with the content of relevant laws, regulations and rules, and know what the consequences may be if you do not follow them.

This chapter is about:

• 5.1 Driver and owner's responsibilities
• 5.2 Carriage card
• 5.3 Registration and ownership
• 5.4 Financial responsibility and insurance
• 5.5 Public reactions
• 5.6 Tractor and environment
• 5.7 Legislation in the workplace
• 5.8 Summary

5. Responsibility

5.1 Driver and owner's responsibilities (1/2)

Tractor condition

Before driving

According to the Road Traffic Act, you have a responsibility to know that the tractor is in proper and proper condition before driving.

While driving

You are also responsible for ensuring that the tractor is in a safe condition while driving. If a fault occurs while driving, you can continue as long as the fault does not affect road safety.

Tractor rental

If you are going to lend your tractor, you must make sure that the person who is going to borrow it has a valid driving license and is not under the influence. He must also have sufficient skills. Remember that someone who only has experience driving a car does not necessarily have the same skills in driving a tractor. If you hand over your tractor to someone who does not meet the conditions to be able to drive, you risk getting the same punishment as him.

You need to know that the tractor and trailer are safe to drive.

Decent condition

If a vehicle is to be used, it must be in a safe condition. Safe condition means that the vehicle is safe to drive. For example, if you have a serious brake failure or the brake lights are not working, the vehicle is not in a safe condition.

The vehicle may be in good condition even if it is not in proper condition. For example, you can drive a car with a broken headlight during the day and in good light, even if such a car is not in proper condition. But – fix the headlight as soon as you can.

Regulatory condition

A vehicle being in proper condition means that it meets the requirements of the vehicle regulations. That is, that all functions work and are as they should be – for example, lights, tire pressure and mirrors.

5. Responsibility

5.2 Carriage card (1/2)

Carriage card

The vehicle card consists of two parts. Part 1 must be in the vehicle at all times. This part contains information about the identity of the vehicle and its owner, as well as technical information.

Part 2 mainly contains information about the identity of the vehicle and the owner and should be kept somewhere other than in the vehicle, e.g. at home or at work. Part 2 also serves as a notification to the traffic police station about a change of ownership if the tractor is to be sold.

Carriage card part 1.

5. Responsibility

5.3 Registration and ownership (1/2)

Registration obligation

Basically, all motor vehicles must be registered in order to be used.

To register a vehicle for the first time in Norway, you must go to a traffic station. You must take out traffic insurance and prove that customs and fees have been paid before you can have the vehicle registered.

Vehicles that are registered have a license plate (registration number) and a vehicle registration certificate. As a driver, you must ensure that the vehicle registration certificate is always with you while driving and that the plate is correctly positioned, well cleaned and clearly visible.

The registration obligation does not apply to:

• Motorized equipment used only off public roads
• Motorized vehicles not intended for transport and designed for speeds less than 50 km/h
• Tractor designed for speeds less than 20 km/h
• Trailer for unregistered tractor or motor vehicle, or which is only used off public roads

Tractors that are only to be used on the farm do not need to be registered.

Change of ownership

• When you buy or sell a tractor, the change of ownership must be reported to one of the Norwegian Public Roads Administration's traffic stations no later than three days after the change of ownership takes place.
• You can report the change of ownership by appearing at a traffic station or by submitting the relevant papers.
• The Norwegian Road Administration recommends that you use part 2 of the vehicle registration document as a sales notification. This must be submitted before re-registration can be approved.
• It is always the previous owner (seller) who must send/deliver the sales notification to the traffic station.
• Once the sale notice has been submitted and registered, the new owner will receive a letter explaining what needs to be arranged and will be sent a demand for annual fees, toll charges and any fines.
• If the road authority does not receive a correctly completed sales notification, the previous owner will continue to receive relevant claims, even if the person concerned no longer has the tractor at their disposal. Annual fees are an example of such a claim.

Notification of change of ownership.

5. Responsibility

5.4 Financial responsibility and insurance (1/2)

Traffic insurance

All drivers are basically financially responsible for the damage caused by the vehicle, regardless of whether the driver was unlucky or careless.

A tractor that is subject to registration must have traffic insurance. This covers all damage that the tractor or trailer causes to people or other people's property.

Traffic insurance covers damage to:

• Driver of other vehicle, passengers and pedestrians
• Another person's vehicle
• Another person's property
• Yourself and any passenger

Motor vehicle insurance does not cover damage to your own vehicle. You will also not receive compensation for cargo on the vehicle or if the damage occurs when the tractor is used with work equipment such as a winch, log splitter or mower.

Additional insurances

Due to the limitations of traffic insurance, it is necessary to have additional insurance:

• Comprehensive insurance – covers damage to your own vehicle
• Cargo insurance – covers damage to transported goods
• Occupational injury insurance – necessary for anyone with employees

If you use a tractor or trailer that is not subject to registration and there is a risk that the vehicle may cause damage, you must also take out insurance.

Because working in agriculture and forestry involves danger, many insurance companies have combined several insurance policies into a special agricultural insurance policy. This gives you good insurance coverage and a more affordable premium than if the policies had been taken out separately.

Remember that compensation may be reduced or recourse may be claimed – meaning that the insurance company demands money back from you – if you act grossly negligently or drive under the influence of alcohol.

For this type of work, agricultural insurance may be required.

5. Responsibility

5.5 Public reactions (1/2)

Public reactions

As a driver, you must know – and comply with – all relevant laws and regulations issued by authorities such as the police, parking authorities and road authorities.

In the event of a violation of laws and regulations, the authorities may respond with:

• verbal warnings
• fees
• simplified penalties, fines and prison sentences
• points and driver's license revocation
• Sanctions related to the vehicle, such as blocking and banning of use, towing of the vehicle and detention, as well as a lien on the vehicle

Dot load

Violations such as driving over the speed limit, running a red light, illegally overtaking or violating the duty to yield can result in penalty points on your driver's license.

The penalty is 1 to 3 points, in addition to a fine. Multiple offenses at the same time can result in more points.

If you get 8 points or more within 3 years, you will lose your driving license for at least 6 months. When the suspension period is over, you will get your driving license back.

Violation of the duty to give way results in 3 points.

Drunk driving

As mentioned, it is illegal to drive a tractor with a blood alcohol level above 0.2 in Norway. The Road Traffic Act contains separate penal provisions for driving under the influence of alcohol.

If you are convicted of drunk driving, you may receive:

• fine, if the blood alcohol concentration is between 0.2 and 0.5 per mille
• fine and conditional or unconditional imprisonment, as well as loss of driving privileges for at least one year, if the blood alcohol concentration is between 0.5 and 1.2 per mille
• fine and unconditional imprisonment, as well as loss of driving privileges for at least one year, if the blood alcohol concentration is above 1.2 per mille

ATTENTION!

You can be convicted of driving under the influence with an alcohol concentration below 0.2 per mille if you have shown great carelessness while driving.

Drinking alcohol after driving

If you are involved in an accident or other incident that you believe may lead to a police investigation, you may not consume alcohol or other drugs for the first six hours after driving. Once the blood/breath test has been taken, or you are told by the police that they will not be taking samples, this prohibition no longer applies.

The police carry out breathalyzer tests. If you refuse to provide a sample, it can be taken by force.

5. Responsibility

5.6 Tractor and environment (1/2)

Tractor and environment

Smoke and exhaust from the tractor are harmful to both health and the environment, and the tractor should therefore not be idling in an enclosed space or when parked.

To protect the environment and avoid pollution, the tractor must be kept in good condition. Make sure that the air filter is sufficiently cleaned so that the tractor does not emit unnecessary smoke. All leaks from the tractor must be repaired as soon as possible. When changing the oil, be careful to avoid spilling the used oil. Oils and used filters must be handled as special waste.

By avoiding constant braking and acceleration, and unnecessary starting and stopping, driving becomes more economical and environmentally friendly. In addition, using an engine heater in winter will reduce the emission of hazardous gases.

An old tractor is not very environmentally friendly.

5. Responsibility

5.7 Legislation in the workplace (1/2)

Workplace legislation

Tractor as a workplace

Many people drive tractors as part of their job. Then the tractor is a workplace – and therefore one must follow the legislation that regulates workplaces in Norway. This includes the Working Environment Act and regulations on the performance of work. These are intended to protect people in the workplace against dangerous working conditions.

Nature

Much of the tractor driving takes place outside the regular road network. A tractor can cause great damage to its surroundings – so when driving a tractor you must stay within the motor traffic laws.

The Motor Traffic Act is intended to protect nature, and determines where you can drive and what type of driving is permitted.

Take care of the environment, be environmentally conscious.

Motorized travel in nature

Damage to nature

Driving a tractor on bare ground can damage plant life and leave marks and wounds in the terrain. The traces of such driving can be visible for many years. In addition, nature is directly exposed to pollution and emissions from the tractor.

Such damage is further exacerbated by the fact that using a tractor allows you to cover large distances in a short time and can more easily reach otherwise inaccessible natural areas.

In connection with moose hunting, it is permitted to transport moose by tractor, unless you are in a protected area. In that case, you must apply to the conservation authority for a dispensation. If you are granted a dispensation, this must be carried with you when driving.

Well-being

For outdoor enthusiasts, the sound of engine noise in particular can be disruptive. However, smells and driving tracks on the ground or in the snow can also be experienced negatively.

Since vehicles are disruptive to the environment, we have a law called the Motor Traffic Act.

Driving in the outback must be done in accordance with the Motor Traffic Act.

Motor Traffic Act

The Motor Traffic Act determines where you can drive and what type of driving can be done in open countryside and waterways . The purpose of the law is to protect the natural environment and promote well-being.

Outback is all land that is not defined as inland. Outback includes most of the lakes and water, beaches, marshes, forests and mountains in Norway.

A watercourse is an area of ​​connected rivers, streams, lakes and glaciers that have the same catchment area. The area is calculated from their source down to their common outlet into the ocean, lake or larger river.

In principle, it is not permitted to drive a motor vehicle in open fields and waterways, but there are exceptions for activities related to agriculture, forestry and reindeer herding.

Even if you have permission to drive in these areas, you should respect your surroundings and drive as carefully as possible.

Driving in the forest must be done in accordance with the Motor Traffic Act.

The Working Environment Act

The Motor Traffic Act protects nature. Those who work in the tractor are also protected by legislation – namely the Working Environment Act and the Regulations on the Performance of Work .

The Working Environment Act regulates almost all types of work. The Regulations on the Performance of Work have special provisions for the work of those who use work equipment, and work in agriculture, construction, underwater or other special places.

The Working Environment Act states that young people under the age of 18 shall not be employed in work that may be detrimental to their safety, health, development or education. It also requires that anyone who will be using work equipment must have the necessary theoretical and practical training in the equipment they will be using. This is the responsibility of the employer.

By setting such requirements, the Working Environment Act helps ensure that people are safe at work.

If you are under 18 years of age, you should check the Working Environment Act to see if you are allowed to do this type of work.

Safety in the operating building

When you drive a tractor off-road, the workplace is very varied. Some areas present extra challenges – and to ensure safety in the workplace, you need to be aware of this.

Driving a tractor in farm buildings

Driving a tractor inside a barn, cowshed or stable is not uncommon, and presents special challenges that you don't have outside:

• Barn Bridge – Barn bridges can be narrow. Tractors are large and heavy, so even if the barn bridge has railings, the tractor can roll off.
• Exhaust – When driving indoors, you must ensure good ventilation and constantly be aware of the air quality. There are a lot of harmful exhaust gases in a tractor.
• Fire or smoke development – ​​There is always a risk of a vehicle catching fire. This is especially dangerous if you are indoors. Tractors used in a farm building must be equipped with a spark arrestor.

Barn fires can be caused by a fire in a tractor.

Safety on icy water

If you are going to drive on icy water, you must take care of the following:

• Check the ice – Check tables that show how thick the ice must be in relation to the vehicle's weight and axle load.
• Sunroof – Always drive with the sunroof open and remove the cab doors. Do not operate the tractor without the sunroof when driving on ice.
• Steady speed – Don't drive too slowly, but don't drive too fast either, especially with heavy loads. Recommended speed 5–15 km/h.
• Other factors – Snow and slush change the properties of ice. Its thickness can vary greatly, especially near land and where rivers flow out.

You need to know that the ice is thick enough.

The insurance

Please note that tractor insurance does not usually cover driving on frozen water unless a special agreement has been made with the insurance company.

5. Responsibility

5.8 Summary

Summary

We have reviewed this in chapter 5:

• According to the Road Traffic Act, you are responsible for ensuring that the tractor is in proper and proper condition.
• If you are going to lend your tractor, you must make sure that the person who is going to borrow it has a valid driver's license and is not under the influence.
• Basically, all motor vehicles must be registered in order to be used. Registered vehicles have a registration number and vehicle registration certificate.
• When buying or selling a tractor, the change of ownership must be reported to a traffic station no later than 3 days after the change of ownership has taken place. It is always the responsibility of the previous owner to submit a sales notification to the traffic station.
• A tractor that is subject to registration must have third-party liability insurance. Third-party liability insurance covers damage to persons and other people's property. Due to the limitations of third-party liability insurance, it is necessary to have additional insurance.
• Violating laws and regulations can result in verbal warnings, fees, simplified fines, fines, imprisonment, points and loss of your driver's license, and the vehicle being impounded and towed.
• To protect the environment, you should take care to keep your tractor in good condition. In addition, constant braking and acceleration should be avoided to make driving more economical and environmentally friendly.
• The Motor Traffic Act regulates motor traffic in open areas and waterways.
• Regulations in the Working Environment Act regulate activities in agriculture and forestry, and the use of work equipment.

In the next chapter, we will look at the traffic system and the basic rules of behavior in traffic.

6. The traffic system

6.0 Introduction

Introduction

The traffic system consists of four parts: traffic management, the road, the vehicles and the road users. Your behavior in traffic and the interaction between the different parts of the traffic system are largely governed by laws and regulations in the Road Traffic Act and the traffic rules. In addition, traffic is controlled through road markings, signs and traffic lights.

This chapter is about:

• 6.1 Traffic rules and the Road Traffic Act
• 6.2 Road user groups
• 6.3 Challenges of driving slowly
• 6.4 Road and road markings
• 6.5 Signs
• 6.6 Light control
• 6.7 Police and the government pyramid
• 6.8 Summary

Traffic rules

Actually "Regulations on driving and pedestrian traffic." The traffic rules include rules on positioning, the duty to give way, special speed regulations, overtaking, stopping and parking.

6. The traffic system

6.1 Traffic rules and the Road Traffic Act (1/2)

What controls traffic?

Without a set of rules that everyone follows, traffic would be chaotic and life-threatening. That's why we have laws, rules, and regulations that regulate how all the elements of the traffic system should function and how we should behave in traffic.

Through legislation, the authorities have given us both general and specific rules regarding behavior in traffic, requirements for vehicles, requirements for the design of the road environment, and traffic management.

Traffic is being directed by a police officer.

Important laws and regulations

Matters such as the duty to give way, stopping and parking, speed, lane changes, use of lights and signals, etc. are governed by several different laws and regulations. The most important of these are the Road Traffic Act and the traffic regulations.

Road Traffic Act

The Road Traffic Act contains many important provisions that regulate our behavior in traffic. Of particular importance is the "Basic Rules for Traffic", which is the main provision on behavior in traffic.

The provisions of the Road Traffic Act apply to all motor vehicle traffic in Norway. The provisions also apply to cyclists and others who travel in traffic when they are on a road or area where cars or other motor vehicles normally drive. The Road Traffic Act includes provisions on

• speed
• driver under the influence of drugs
• obligations in the event of a traffic accident
• practice run
• violations and penalties

The Road Traffic Act is included in the laws of Norway.

Traffic rules

"Regulations on driving and walking traffic" – better known as the traffic rules – contain provisions on behavior in traffic. The traffic rules apply on public or private roads, streets or places that are open to general traffic. The traffic rules include rules on:

• use of the roadway, vehicle position in the roadway and lane changes
• duty to yield
• Duties towards pedestrians
• reversing and turning
• special speed regulations
• stopping and parking

Which lane you should use is regulated in the traffic rules.

Motor vehicle

Motor vehicle is a collective term for all vehicles that are propelled by their own engine.

Cars, mopeds, tractors, motorized lawn mowers and balance bikes such as Segways are all considered motor vehicles. Electric bicycles are not defined as motor vehicles.

General traffic

That a place is open to general traffic means that there is normally traffic there, even though it may not be open to everyone at all times.

The basic rule of traffic

Section 3 of the Road Traffic Act lays the foundation for all behavior in traffic, and is therefore also called the basic rules of traffic. You should always keep these basic rules in mind when you are in traffic. When someone does not follow the basic rules, dangerous traffic situations easily arise, and a violation of this section is therefore often grounds for losing your driver's license for a period of time.

The basic rules of traffic say:

Everyone must travel with consideration and be alert and cautious so that no danger arises or damage is caused and so that other traffic is not unnecessarily obstructed or disrupted.

Road users must also show consideration for those who live or stay by the road.

Basic traffic rules require you to make independent decisions about what is safe, within the limits of the traffic rules. For example, you should understand when you can drive as fast as the posted speed limit, and when you should drive slower than the speed limit – for example, if the road is bad.

When you drive, it is your basic duty to be:

• Considerate: Take into account the needs of other road users and not just your own.
• Be alert: Be concentrated and attentive and pay close attention to traffic.
• Careful: Drive in a manner that reduces the risk of accidents and injuries. Adjust your speed to the conditions and show your fellow road users clearly, and in good time, what you intend to do.

You must always be considerate, attentive and cautious in any traffic situation.

6. The traffic system

6.2 Road user groups (1/3)

Be considerate of other road users

The Road Traffic Act and traffic regulations require that you, as a driver of a motor vehicle, must take other road users into account. As a driver, you have a great moral and legal responsibility, and the requirements placed on you are strict – much stricter than the requirements placed on other road users.

The traffic rules contain separate provisions that require us to show extra caution towards pedestrians, children, the elderly and the disabled.

To achieve efficient and safe traffic flow, you as a tractor driver must also pay special attention to some other road user groups, especially smaller vehicles (motorcycles/mopeds/bicycles).

Do you see any road users you need to pay extra attention to?

The soft road users

By vulnerable road users we mean cyclists, pedestrians and other non-motorized road users – those road users who are at greatest risk of serious injury in an accident. Some vulnerable road users require extra attention, and to avoid accidents between vehicles and particularly vulnerable vulnerable road users, the following provision is included in the traffic rules:

As a driver, you are particularly obliged to maintain a sufficiently low speed and, if necessary, stop immediately when passing:

• children staying on or by the road
• school patrol
• person who uses a white cane or guide dog for the blind
• other person who may be presumed to suffer from an injury or illness that impairs him/her in traffic
• tram or bus that has stopped or is about to stop at a stop
• horse passing

Please note that some pedestrians may not be able to follow traffic very well.

Child

As mentioned, you are obliged to maintain a sufficiently low speed and, if necessary, stop immediately when passing children who are on or near the road.

The background to this rule is mainly that:

• Children are impulsive and do unexpected things.
• Children's field of vision is much smaller than that of adults (lacking the same wide angle).
• Children's hearing is also underdeveloped, including children's inability to hear where a sound is coming from.
• Children's ability to judge distance and speed is poorer than adults'.
• Children do not understand how traffic works and have no connection to reaction times and braking distances, etc.

Since children are small in stature, you must also be especially attentive in relevant areas and adjust your speed to avoid accidents as a result of children being "hidden" behind parked cars and the like.

Children can be unpredictable, so be careful!

6. The traffic system

6.2 Road user groups (2/3)

Elderly and disabled

As mentioned, you are obliged to maintain a sufficiently low speed and, if necessary, stop immediately when passing a person using a white cane or a guide dog for the blind, and for people who have disabilities or illnesses that hinder them in traffic.

Old age naturally leads to impaired vision and hearing, and often reduced mobility. This makes it more difficult for older people to get a good overview of the traffic situation, and it also becomes more difficult to navigate in traffic, something you as a driver must take into account.

Blind and disabled people will naturally also often have difficulty navigating traffic.

Please take into account all vulnerable road users.

Walking

The traffic rules also contain a separate provision that requires you to show extra caution when it comes to all pedestrians.

You should:

• Give pedestrians sufficient space on the road.
• Give way to pedestrians if you are crossing a walkway or sidewalk and when driving in a pedestrian zone or street corner.
• Give way to pedestrians who are in a crosswalk or are about to enter it (applies to crosswalks that are not regulated by traffic lights or police).
• Stop and give way to people getting on or off the tram at stops without their own ramp, where boarding and alighting takes place in the road.
• Avoid stopping at pedestrian crossings.

Note!

Unfortunately, it happens all too often that pedestrians on the side of the road in the dark are hit. Therefore, remember to use the right lights, adjust your speed and position yourself correctly in the roadway.

Stop for pedestrians.

Cyclists

When passing a cyclist, make sure you keep a safe distance in case the cyclist wobbles or turns suddenly. You also need to consider that rear-mounted equipment can hit the cyclist when you turn.

If you are going to turn right at an intersection, you must pay attention to what is next to the tractor on the right side. If a moped or cyclist has positioned themselves there, they may come into conflict with the tractor when it turns right. You must make sure it is clear before you turn.

Be careful when passing cyclists.

6. The traffic system

6.3 Challenges of driving slowly (1/2)

Special challenges of driving slowly

Since the tractor has a low top speed, you should expect to be overtaken frequently. This can lead to many dangerous situations in traffic. For example, you should be prepared to brake in case the car passing you does not give you enough clearance and pulls right in front of you.

When you are being overtaken, you are obliged to cooperate. Therefore, it may be necessary to slow down, pull over to the right, and even stop. If you see a queue forming behind you, you should find a suitable place to stop and let traffic pass, such as a bus shelter or rest area. Otherwise, the queue may start to squeeze past you, which can lead to risky overtaking and dangerous situations.

You have just as much right to be on the road as other vehicles – but all road users must contribute to good traffic flow.

Cooperate with other road users and contribute to better traffic flow.

Challenges at crossroads

Sometimes you will find that drivers take the chance to pass you when you are turning left at an intersection. This is because the driver thinks he has enough time to pass before the intersection. Therefore, you should always check your mirrors before turning.

When driving straight ahead at an intersection, you may run the risk of the oncoming car turning left and crossing right in front of you because it thinks you are driving slower than you actually are. Be aware of this to prevent a collision.

Check your mirror before turning left.

6. The traffic system

6.4 Road and road markings (1/4)

The road

The road is an important part of the traffic system.

In the traffic regulations, a road is defined as “a public or private road, street or space open to general traffic.” Road markings distinguish between different parts of the road and provide important information about which rules apply.

General information about road markings

• Longitudinal markings are used to divide the roadway into lanes/indicate the outer edge of the roadway.
• Transverse markings are used, among other things, to mark stop lines, yield lines and pedestrian crossings.
• Yellow markings separate traffic in the opposite direction.
• White markings separate traffic in the same direction.

Driving abroad

Many countries use white lines to separate oncoming traffic, such as Sweden, Denmark, and Finland.

General traffic

That a place is open to general traffic means that there is normally traffic there, even though it may not be open to everyone at all times.

Road structure

In addition to the definition of road, the traffic rules contain definitions of many other important concepts about the road and the road environment.

• Roadway – The part of the road designated for normal driving.
• Lane – Each of the longitudinal lanes into which a roadway is divided by markings, or which is wide enough for traffic with a single line of vehicles.
• Footpath and cycle path – A road designated by public traffic signs for pedestrians, cyclists or combined pedestrian and cyclist traffic. Such a road is separated from other roads by a lawn, ditch, fence, kerbstone or in some other way.
• Road shoulder – The part of the road that lies outside the curb line.

• Intersection – A place where a road crosses or merges with another road.
• Cycle lane – A lane designated for cyclists by public traffic signs and markings.
• Centerlines – Physical barrier between two lanes (one of the main reasons why the number of traffic fatalities has fallen over the past ten years).
• Sidewalk – A "facility" for pedestrians that is separated from the roadway by curbs.

Road structure

This film shows an intersection in a typical urban area.

6. The traffic system

6.4 Road and road markings (2/4)

Road markings in the middle of the roadway

Lane line

A lane line warns that overtaking is safe as long as there is no oncoming traffic and visibility is good. The lane line consists of short yellow/white lines with long gaps. The gap should be 3 times as long as the line. When the speed limit is 50 km/h or lower, the line will be 1 meter and the gap 3 meters. When the speed limit is 60 km/h or higher, the length is increased to 3 meters for the line and 9 meters for the gap.

Alert line

A warning line warns that overtaking will be risky, often because you will not be able to see far enough. It is therefore permissible to overtake, but it requires that you have full control. The line itself consists of long yellow/white lines with short gaps, where the lines are 3 times as long as the gaps. When the speed limit is 50 km/h or lower, the gap will be 1 meter and the line will be 3 meters, but when the speed limit increases to 60 km/h or higher, the length increases to 3 meters for the gap and 9 meters for the line.

Combined lines

In cases where you and oncoming traffic have different forward visibility, you will often see combined lines. In the case of combined lines, you should follow the line closest to you. In the image, oncoming traffic should follow the warning line, while traffic in your direction should follow the lane line.

Barrier line

A barrier line consists of an uninterrupted line that warns that overtaking is not possible. If you cross the barrier line, you risk having your driving license revoked. In the example image on the right, you see a combined line with two barrier lines, one for each direction of travel. We call this combination a double barrier line.

Restricted area

A restricted area is a shaded area that must not be crossed. Such restricted areas are often used at intersections or to separate traffic on motorways. As with the restricted line, crossing a restricted area is strictly prohibited and can, in the worst case, result in the loss of your driving license for a period of time.

Arrows

The arrows indicate that the lane is to be used by road users who are going to drive in the direction or directions indicated by the arrow. Before major intersections, these arrows will also be displayed on information signs hanging above the road, as they are easily hidden by road users in front or under snow and slush in winter.

6. The traffic system

6.4 Road and road markings (3/4)

Road markings on the side of the roadway

Dividing line

A dividing line consists of equal-length lines and spaces and often separates lanes from, for example, bicycle lanes or bus lanes. Dividing lines are also used to separate lanes intended for public transport and taxis from the other lanes.

Border – solid

A solid edge line is white and runs along the outer edge of the roadway. A solid edge line is used on both two-way and one-way traffic roads.

Border – dotted

On roads with a width of less than 6 meters, the roadway is not divided into lanes and therefore there is no line in the middle of the roadway. Instead, dotted lines are used on the side that consist of equal length lines and spaces.

Transverse road markings

Yield line

A yield line is a transverse road marking consisting of triangles that mark the stopping point for yielding at an intersection. Yield lines are also used when entering roundabouts.

Stop line

A stop line is a solid line that marks the stopping point at traffic lights and at stop signs.

Pedestrian crossing

A pedestrian crossing is marked with thick white stripes and equal spaces. You must give way to pedestrians who want to cross the road across the crosswalk. When you approach a crosswalk where a pedestrian is waiting, you must clearly slow down to show that you want to give way to the pedestrian.

Be aware that not all pedestrian crossings are marked with crosswalk signs and that some crosswalks may be elevated.

Road markings

This film shows the longitudinal road markings.

6. The traffic system

6.5 Signs (1/5)

Sign

You must know the different groups of signs and what each individual sign means for your further driving.

We will now look at the different sign groups, but for a complete review of all the signs, you should go to Chapter 9, "Sign Overview".

Important!

On the official theory test, your knowledge of road signs will be thoroughly tested. Some tasks are simply about knowing the meaning of a particular sign, while in other tasks you are shown a situation where you have to base your decision on several signs at once.

In the last chapter of the course you will find a complete list of all signs used in Norway today.

How many of the signs can you recognize?

The sign groups

In this film we take a look at the sign groups.

Danger sign

Danger signs warn of particular dangers on a stretch of road. They may warn of irregularities in the road such as sharp bends, slippery road surfaces or uneven roads. Danger signs also warn of road users you need to watch out for, animals that may be in the road or other possible hazards.

All danger signs are shaped with a red triangle on the outside and a white background. The exception is when such signs are put up for a short period, typically in connection with road works, when a yellow background is used.

Often, danger signs will have sub-signs that provide information about the distance, extent or period for which the sign applies. The sub-sign may also have symbols, arrows or text with important additional information to the danger sign.

The location of the danger sign depends on the speed limit in the area:

• If the speed limit is 60 km/h or lower, the sign is placed between 50–150 meters from the hazard.
• The sign is placed 150–250 meters from the hazard when the speed limit is 70 km/h or higher.
• At speeds of 90 km/h or higher, danger signs are often placed 400 meters from the danger.

Children. The sign warns of a place on or along the road where children often travel or stay in connection with a school, kindergarten, playground or similar.

Yield and right-of-way signs

Yield and right-of-way signs regulate yielding at intersections or on a stretch of road. The signs in this category have varying designs based on their purpose.

Yield and right-of-way signs may have sub-signs indicating, for example, distance or the course of a right-of-way.

Duty to yield. You must yield to traffic in both directions on intersecting roads.

6. The traffic system

6.5 Signs (2/5)

Prohibition sign

Prohibition signs are signs that prohibit something on a stretch of road or in a place, or that cancel a prohibition. Basically, prohibition signs apply in the direction of travel from where the sign is located to the next intersection (but some prohibition signs apply until they are canceled by other signs). The sign that shows the speed limit on a stretch of road is also a prohibition sign.

Prohibition signs are round with a red border and a white background. The exception is temporary signage, where the background is yellow, and signs prohibiting stopping and parking, where the background is blue.

Prohibition signs may also have sub-signs describing the time, extent, and the like.

Prohibited for motor vehicles.

Mandatory sign

Mandatory signs apply to a road section or location. The requirement usually applies to which lane to use or which direction you can drive at an intersection.

Mandatory signs are round with a blue background and may have sub-signs that inform which road users the sign applies to.

Mandatory driving direction. The arrow shows which direction you should leave the intersection in. The sign usually hangs above the lane it applies to.

Information sign

Information signs indicate that special rules, including prohibitions and orders, apply or cease to apply to the road section or location in question. Most information signs are square with a blue background. Information signs that provide information about the continuation of the lanes have a white background.

Like most other sign groups, information signs can also have sub-signs that provide more detailed information about the main sign.

Pedestrian crossing. The sign indicates a pedestrian crossing where the traffic regulations' provisions regarding pedestrian crossings apply.

6. The traffic system

6.5 Signs (3/5)

Service sign

Service signs provide information about emergency assistance, roadside assistance, points of interest, and more. Two or more symbols can be combined on the same sign. Distance and further information about the service location can also be indicated on the sign.

Service signs that provide information about emergency assistance and roadside assistance are square, with a blue border and a black symbol. Signs that provide information about attractions, nature experiences or outdoor activities are square, with a brown border and brown symbols.

Here are the service signs for emergency telephone and fire extinguisher together.

Directional signs

Road signs provide information about place names, businesses, road routes, lane selection, road selection and distance to destination. Unlike the other types of signs, road signs do not have sub-signs. Instead, text, numbers and symbols can be on the road sign itself. If public traffic signs are reproduced on road signs, it means that a corresponding sign is set up on the road to which it refers.

Color codes for road signs

• Geographical targets motorway – blue background and white text
• Geographical targets other roads – yellow background and black text
• Other goals – white background and black text
• Temporary signage – orange background and black text
• Tourist destination – brown background and white text

The large yellow sign on the right is an exit sign.

Sub-sign

Sub-signs are only valid when they are placed together with a main sign, and provide further clarification, expansion, completion or limitation of the main sign's meaning or area of ​​validity.

Sub-signs for main signs used for temporary signage in connection with road works may have a yellow background.

The first sub-sign shows that the main sign applies if you drive right at the next intersection. The second sub-sign informs you when parking is allowed. The last sign informs you on which stretch the sign applies.

Marking sign

Marking signs provide information about the further course of the road or about obstacles on or near the roadway. Curb posts and traffic cones also fall within this category.

Temporary marking signs may have a red background and yellow or white symbols.

Directional marking. The signs are used in sharp turns.

6. The traffic system

6.5 Signs (4/5)

Current signs for tractors

As a driver of any vehicle, you should be familiar with all signs, even if not all of them are relevant to you. Some signs are particularly relevant to tractor drivers and we will take a closer look at these here.

It may be worth noting that although a truck is often depicted on the sign, the sign applies to all heavy vehicles. Also remember that a tractor pulling a trailer is considered a truck combination.

The sign warns of temporary roadworks. This may be of particular importance to you as a tractor driver.

Prohibition sign - weight

Prohibited for tractor

Prohibited for tractors and motorized equipment designed for speeds less than 40 km/h. It is important to note that the ban applies to all tractors, regardless of speed limit.

Total vehicle weight limit

The vehicle cannot have a current total weight that is higher than the weight stated on the sign. If you have a truck combination, each of the vehicles in the truck combination can weigh what is stated. The sign in the picture shows that you can have a truck combination with a 12-ton motor vehicle and a 12-ton trailer - 24 tons in total. However, the vehicle and trailer alone cannot weigh more than 12 tons.

Total weight limit for truck combinations

The vehicle combination cannot have a total current total weight that is higher than the weight indicated on the sign. This sign does not refer to the individual vehicles as in the sign above, but to the total weight of the entire vehicle combination. Nor can you have individual vehicles that are heavier than the weight indicated in the picture.

Axle load limit

Vehicles with an actual axle load higher than 3 tonnes must not drive on the road where this sign is located. The same applies to vehicles with an actual bogie load higher than 1.5 times the stated axle load, i.e. 4.5 tonnes, and vehicles with an actual triple bogie load higher than 2 times – i.e. 6 tonnes – the stated axle load.

Bogie load limit

Vehicles with a current bogie load above the specified weight cannot drive on the road where this sign is located.

Prohibited for motor vehicles with more than two wheels and with a permissible total weight higher than stated.

Wagon train

When several vehicles are coupled together, it is called a truck combination. A vehicle is anything with a vehicle registration. Examples of truck combinations are a truck with a trailer, a passenger car with a trailer, and a tractor with a semi-trailer.

Prohibition sign – size

Width limit

Vehicles cannot be wider than specified. The same applies to any cargo in the vehicle.

Height limit

Vehicles cannot be higher than specified. The same applies to any cargo in the vehicle. Remember that a tractor is usually 3 meters high and a combine harvester can be as high as 4 meters.

Length limit

Vehicles or truck combinations cannot be longer than specified. This also applies to any goods.

6. The traffic system

6.6 Light control (1/2)

Traffic light

At intersections where there is a steady flow of road users, traffic is often regulated by traffic lights. In recent years, many traffic lights have been replaced with roundabouts to improve traffic flow, but we still find a number of traffic lights in the larger cities in this country. We will now look at what the different traffic lights mean:

• Green light – means you can pass the signal or stop line if the road is clear.
• Yellow light – warns that the light will soon turn red and that you must stop. If you do not have time to stop because you are going fast and are close to the intersection, it is usually better to drive through the intersection than to brake suddenly just before.
• Red light – means you must not pass the signal or stop line.
• Red light together with yellow light – indicates that it will soon turn green.
• Flashing yellow light or no light – means that the traffic light is out of order, and then signage or the general yield rules apply.

The four phases of the traffic light.

Traffic light

Pedestrian signal and arrow signal

Pedestrian signal

• A red signal means that pedestrians must not begin crossing the roadway if this would obstruct drivers or pose a danger. Pedestrians who have already entered the roadway may continue crossing.
• A green signal means that pedestrians can cross the roadway.
• A flashing green signal warns that the signal will shortly change to red, and has the same meaning as a red signal.

Arrow signal

• The signal applies to those who want to drive in the direction the arrow is pointing.
• The arrow signal can have one, two or three light openings. If the arrow signal is not lit, you should follow the main traffic light.

Other traffic lights

Lane signal

• A red cross indicates a prohibition on using the field in the direction of the signal.
• Green arrow indicates that the field can be used.
• A yellow arrow indicates that the lane will be closed, and that drivers must immediately change lanes in the direction the arrow points.

Lane signals control the use of lanes.

Flashing signal in front of railway

• A flashing red signal indicates that road users must stop at the stop line or at a safe distance in front of the signal.
• A white flashing signal indicates that the level crossing can be passed in accordance with the provisions of the traffic regulations. A white flashing signal also indicates that the signaling system is in operation.

Flashing light arrow

• The arrow marks which side is to be passed.
• Flashing light arrows are usually set up in connection with road works.

6. The traffic system

6.7 Police and the authority pyramid (1/2)

Police

Rules, signs and lights are not always enough to ensure safe and efficient traffic flow. In some cases, such as traffic accidents or roadworks, there will be a need to regulate traffic manually – that is, for a person to direct traffic on site. At other times, you may be waved in for an inspection by the police or the Norwegian Public Roads Administration.

Persons with authority to give directions in traffic

• Police – Directs traffic when there have been traffic accidents or other reasons that cause the flow of traffic to stop. In addition, the police also carry out various types of checks, such as speed checks, seat belt use and alcohol checks.
• Customs – Customs officers can wave down road users for inspection. Such inspections usually take place at border crossings, where the first and foremost thing is to check that you are not carrying contraband, but you can also be stopped if your papers are not in order.
• The Norwegian Public Roads Administration – The Norwegian Public Roads Administration carries out some of the same checks as the police; technical inspections, seat belt use, etc.
• Roadworks – During roadworks, there will likely be one or more people directing traffic past the area in question. These people will likely have orange or other fluorescent clothing and lights to direct traffic with. Temporary signage may also be set up, with a yellow background.

The police and the Norwegian Road Administration are among those who have the authority to give traffic instructions.

Duties during traffic control

You are obliged to stop at a traffic control and follow instructions until the control is completed or until you have been given permission to leave the area. You are also obliged to present required documents and comply with any requirements.

The pyramid of authority

You will often encounter situations in traffic where traffic rules, road markings, signs and traffic lights conflict with each other. In order to know which to follow, it is important that you learn the hierarchy between them – the so-called "pyramid of authority".

The authority pyramid tells you that the police are at the top. For example, if a police officer tells you to drive, you should drive regardless of what any yield signs or traffic lights indicate.

Under the police are traffic lights. This means that as long as the traffic lights are active, they take precedence over any yield signs. If you come to a traffic light and you have a green light, but there is also a yield sign there, the traffic light applies. If the traffic light is out of order, however, you must yield after the yield sign.

There are signs and road markings under traffic lights. If a yield sign tells you that you must yield to traffic on an intersecting road, you must yield even if the general yield rules of the traffic regulations actually state that traffic from the left has the right of way.

At the bottom of the authority pyramid are traffic rules and other relevant regulations.

Tip!

On the theory test, you will not necessarily be asked questions about the authority pyramid directly, but you may usually be asked questions about situations where you have to use the authority pyramid to find the correct answer.

The pyramid of authority

In this film we see how the authority pyramid affects the passage of an intersection.

6. The traffic system

6.8 Summary

Summary

We have reviewed this in chapter 6:

• The traffic system consists of four parts: traffic management, the road, the vehicles and the road users.
• In the Road Traffic Act we find the basic rules for traffic: "Everyone shall travel with consideration and be alert and cautious so that no danger or damage can arise and so that other traffic is not unnecessarily obstructed or disturbed. Road users shall also show consideration for those who live or stay by the road."
• The traffic rules contain provisions regarding, among other things, the position of the vehicle on the roadway, the duty to give way, stopping and parking, and apply to public or private roads, streets or spaces open to general traffic.
• Traffic regulation is governed by the Road Traffic Act. It is therefore important that you are familiar with signs and traffic lights, as well as the meaning of different types of road markings.
• The traffic rules also contain separate provisions that require us to show extra caution for pedestrians, children, the elderly and the disabled.
• The authority pyramid tells you what applies when traffic rules, road markings, signage, and traffic lights conflict with each other.

In the next chapter we will look at basic observation techniques and how to best make yourself understood by other road users. You will also learn about how the tractor physically behaves in terms of speed, traction and braking.

7. Tractor in traffic

7.0 Introduction

The drive

Before you go out and drive in traffic for the first time, you should practice basic observation techniques and think about how to best make yourself understood by other road users. You should also know how the tractor physically behaves in terms of speed, traction and braking.

Not least, you should think about the fact that your vehicle is large, heavy and slow, and how you should therefore interact with other road users.

This chapter is about:

• 7.1 Interaction and speed matching
• 7.2 Traction and braking
• 7.3 Location, intersections and roundabouts
• 7.4 Duty to yield
• 7.5 Reversing, turning, stopping and parking
• 7.6 Motorway
• 7.7 Tunnel and level crossing
• 7.8 Queue driving and overtaking
• 7.9 Driving in the dark and on slippery roads
• 7.10 Summary

7. Tractor in traffic

7.1 Interaction and speed matching (1/3)

Interaction

One of the most important things in traffic is to make yourself well understood by your fellow road users and to be able to interpret how they think and act.

If you assume that all road users largely follow the guidelines given in the traffic rules, you can make many judgments based on other road users' signaling, speed choices, and position on the road. You will also be able to form an opinion about whether other road users have actually observed you, and act accordingly. This forms the basis for much of the interaction in traffic.

First and foremost, we use turn signals and brake lights to signal in traffic, but we start by looking at how the choice of speed and position on the road affects the interaction in traffic.

At a busy intersection, interaction is crucial to achieving good traffic flow.

Flow in traffic

Good traffic coordination forms the basis for safe and efficient traffic flow.

Position yourself so that others understand you

You can also provide a lot of information to other road users just through your location in the lane.

For example, if you pull up to the right shoulder/curb before an intersection, you are sending a signal that you plan to turn right at the upcoming intersection.

However, if you move all the way to the left in your own lane before an intersection, this could be interpreted as you planning to turn left at the intersection.

It is at least equally important to maintain a neutral position in the lane, meaning stay in the middle of the lane if you are going straight ahead at the intersection so that you avoid confusing other road users.

With this location, there is little doubt about where you are going.

Give clear signs

What are signs?

You signal by using your turn signals when you are going to turn at an intersection or make a lateral movement. If your tractor does not have turn signals, you must signal with your arm. When you brake, the rear brake lights will signal that you are braking. Remember that turn signals and brake lights may be less visible to other road users when there is strong sunlight. In that case, it may also be a good idea to signal with your arm. The signal for brake or stop is the arm pointing upwards.

When do you use characters?

The traffic rules state that you must signal when turning and when making other significant changes to the vehicle's lateral position (for example, when changing lanes or when turning around a car parked on the side of the road).

You must also signal other road users when you are going to change speed. If you slow down, the brake light at the rear of the tractor will come on.

In order for other road users to understand you and adjust their own driving, you must give clear signals in good time. By clear signals, we mean that the signals you give should not be misunderstood. For example, if you are going to turn right at an intersection, you should inform by using both your brake lights and your turn signals.

If possible, you should turn on your turn signal 5-7 seconds before turning or moving sideways. However, be aware that turning on your turn signal too early can be misinterpreted and confuse other road users.

Always use your turn signals when turning right or left at an intersection.

Continuous driving

In this film we see how to adjust your speed, position and use your turn signals when approaching an intersection.

Use signal to warn of danger

What is signal?

By giving a signal we mean using a horn or flashing lights (flashing the high beams/turning on the emergency lights).

When do you use signal?

You use your signal to warn other road users of a dangerous situation you have just passed, so that they may slow down. Many people also flash their high beams to warn other road users that they have forgotten to turn on their daytime running lights, or that one of their lights has stopped working.

You should still be careful not to give unnecessary signals in traffic. There is a separate provision in the traffic rules that states that "unnecessary or reckless use of sound or light signals is prohibited."

Here, an oncoming car flashes its lights, which may indicate that you should drive carefully after the tunnel.

7. Tractor in traffic

7.1 Interaction and speed matching (2/3)

Speed ​​matching

There are some main rules about speed in the Road Traffic Act and the traffic regulations.

In Norway, we have two general speed limits, which apply unless traffic signs state otherwise. When specific speed limits are lifted, the general speed limits will apply.

General speed limits

• In built-up areas: 50 km/h.
• Outside built-up areas: 80 km/h.

The term "built-up area" is not defined in the law, but there are 50 km/h signs when you enter a built-up area.

Densely populated area.

Outside densely populated areas.

Adjust your speed to the conditions.

The most important rule about speed is that you must assess for yourself how fast you can safely maintain.

The driver of a vehicle must adjust the speed to the location, road, visibility and traffic conditions so that no danger or inconvenience to others can arise, and so that other traffic is hindered or disturbed as little as possible. The driver must always have full control of the vehicle.

Drivers must be able to stop on the stretch of road that the driver has a clear view of, and in front of any foreseeable obstacle.

Choose a speed that makes you understood

You can give a lot of information to other road users through your choice of speed. When you slow down towards an intersection, this will be interpreted by your fellow road users as a sign that you are either going to turn at the intersection or that you intend to yield to another road user who is going through the intersection.

When you approach a roundabout (where you have a duty to give way), you are required to slow down well in advance of the roundabout to show that you will comply with the duty to give way.

When driving towards a pedestrian crossing, you are also obliged to slow down well in advance of the pedestrian crossing to show pedestrians that you will stop for them.

Special rules about speed

There are also several specific provisions regarding speed in different situations/circumstances:

Drivers are particularly obliged to maintain a sufficiently low speed and, if necessary, stop immediately when passing:

• children staying on or by the road
• school patrol
• people who are visually impaired or blind
• persons who may be presumed to have a disability or suffer from an illness that hinders them in traffic
• tram/bus that has stopped or is about to stop at a stop

Other important special rules about speed

• On pedestrian streets or sidewalks, you must not drive faster than walking speed (5-10 km/h).
• If you are driving with a trailer, you must check what speed the trailer is approved for. For example, if the trailer is approved for speeds up to 30 km/h, that is what applies.

Be especially careful when passing a kindergarten on your way.

7. Tractor in traffic

7.2 Traction and braking (1/4)

Road grip

Traction is the contact between the tires and the ground you are driving on. In order to have good control of your tractor, you must have good traction at all times. There are two main things that affect how good traction you have:

• Kinetic Energy – This is the energy your tractor has due to the speed you are maintaining and the weight of the vehicle. The higher the kinetic energy, the worse the grip will be when you try to turn or brake with a heavy vehicle at high speed.
• Grip between tires and the surface – The quality of your tires, as well as the type of surface you are driving on, is the second factor that determines your grip. If you drive on icy roads with summer tires, you have little grip, and the chance of the vehicle sliding in a different direction than the one you are driving is high. The road surface is usually the smoothest in temperatures around 0 °C.

Road grip is determined by tire type, tread depth, surface and road surface.

Calculating kinetic energy

When you double the speed, you quadruple the kinetic energy of the vehicle. This means that it takes four times as much energy to stop a tractor traveling at 40 km/h as a tractor traveling at 20 km/h.

Remember!

We say that kinetic energy increases with the square of the change in velocity.

7. Tractor in traffic

7.2 Traction and braking (2/4)

Reaction distance, braking distance and stopping distance

You are driving and notice a danger ahead on the road. You decide to brake suddenly to stop before the danger. How long does it take from the time the danger occurs until you stop? How far does the tractor travel before it stops?

You may remember the elements from the driving process – detect, perceive, decide and act. Let’s use these as a starting point as we look further at braking.

• Detect – There is time between the time a hazard arises and the time you actually detect the hazard. We call this time the inattention time, and the distance you cover here we can call the inattention length. There are many factors that affect the inattention length, and we therefore do not usually include this in tasks about braking. A driver who actively uses the rules of sight while driving will be able to detect and perceive hazards earlier than other drivers.
• Perceive and decide – It takes a certain amount of time from the moment you notice the danger until you decide how to act. This time is called reaction time, and the corresponding distance is called reaction distance. Reaction distance is influenced by factors such as the driver's level of experience, alertness and maturity.
• Handle – It takes time from when you start braking until the tractor has stopped. The distance covered is called the braking distance. The braking distance is affected by the grip of the tires, the kinetic energy of the tractor and how hard you brake.

Reaction length + Braking length = Stopping length

If we combine the reaction distance and braking distance, we find the tractor's stopping distance. Many people confuse the terms braking distance and stopping distance, so make sure you understand the difference between them.

Calculating reaction length

How do you calculate reaction length?

To calculate reaction distance, you need to know your reaction time and your speed. Since reaction time is given in seconds, it is helpful if speed is given in meters per second (instead of km per hour). To convert speed from km/h to m/s, divide the speed by 3.6. Then multiply the answer by the reaction time to find the reaction distance.

Example

• You are driving on a country road at 40 km/h. You detect a hazard and consider what to do. It takes 2 seconds before you decide how to act. What will be your reaction time?
• First you calculate the speed in meters per second: 40 / 3.6 = 11.11
• Then multiply the speed by 2: 11.11 x 2 = 22.22
• The reaction length is therefore approximately 22 meters.

How far do you drive from the time you notice a traffic jam in the tunnel until you actually step on the brake pedal?

7. Tractor in traffic

7.2 Traction and braking (3/4)

Calculating braking distance

How do you calculate braking distance?

It is more difficult to calculate braking distance than reaction distance at a given speed because there are so many different things that come into play.

Braking distance is a function of speed, surface, road, weight, how hard you brake and the quality of the brakes, among other things. Because of this, you are not expected to be able to calculate braking distances based solely on a given speed.

Instead, there are a number of tables for braking distances. You may want to memorize these, but if you learn that the braking distance (at maximum braking) on ​​dry asphalt at 20 km/h is 4 meters, then you can calculate the braking distances for other speeds, and for different types of road. We'll look at how.

How do you calculate the change in braking distance?

It is the tractor's kinetic energy that is responsible for the change in braking distance. Just as kinetic energy changes with the square of the change in speed, braking distance changes with the square of the change in speed.

To calculate the change in braking distance, you must first find the change in speed. You find the change in speed by dividing the new speed by the old speed. Since the braking distance changes with the square of the change in speed, you must multiply the change in speed by itself.

To find the braking distance after the speed change, multiply the braking distance before the change by the square of the speed change, which you just calculated.

Example

• You make an emergency brake at 20 km/h. The braking distance is 4 meters. What would the braking distance have been if the speed was 40 km/h?
• The speed change from 20 km/h to 40 km/h: new speed / old speed = 40 km/h / 20 km/h = 2
• The square of the change in speed: 2 x 2 = 4
• The braking distance after the speed change = the braking distance before the speed change x the square of the speed change, i.e.: 4 meters x 4 = 16 meters
• The braking distance at 40 km/h would be 16 meters.

Remember!

• Braking distance changes much more than speed.
• If you double your speed, the braking distance quadruples. If you halve your speed, the braking distance is reduced to a quarter. If you multiply your speed by three, the braking distance becomes a full nine times longer!
• On wet summer roads, the emergency braking distance can be almost twice as long as on dry summer roads.
• In normal winter conditions, the emergency braking distance can be as much as four times longer than in dry summer conditions.

Calculating stop length

How do you calculate stop length?

The stopping distance is the sum of the reaction distance and the braking distance. The stopping distance tells you how long you travel from the time you notice a danger until the car has stopped completely. For example, if the reaction distance is 10 meters and the braking distance is 20 meters, the stopping distance is 30 meters.

When calculating the increase in stopping distance from one speed to another, you must remember that

• reaction time increases with the change in speed
• braking distance increases with the square of the change in speed

Here the braking distance is up to four times what it would be on dry roads.