1. Introduction
1.0 Introduction
Chapter 1: Introduction
In this course, we will go through the bus syllabus with text, video, sound and images, so that you get the knowledge you need to pass the theory test and to become a good road user. In this first chapter we will look at:
- 1.1 The curriculum in class D
- 1.2 Current topic from class B
- 1.3 Control tasks
1. Introduction
1.1 The curriculum in class D
The curriculum for driving licenses in the heavier classes
The curriculum for class D contains everything you will learn, both theory and practice. It is divided into four parts:
- Stage 1 – Basic course heavy vehicles
- Stage 2 – Basic vehicle and driving skills
- Step 3 – Traffic competence
- Step 4 – Final training
Everything you need to know
You are not expected to know the syllabus for class D at rams, but it may be useful to use it as a reference book. All topics in this curriculum can be tested in a practical or theoretical test.
What are you going to learn?
Step 1
The first step in heavy vehicle training is the basic heavy vehicle course. If you have already completed the basic course in one of the other heavy vehicle classes, you do not have to take it again now. The main aim of the basic course is to make students aware of issues related to driving heavy vehicles.
Step 2
In the second stage, you will learn to master the vehicle. Everything from starting and stopping to driving in bends and hills is covered in this step. Here you will also learn about the vehicle's construction and operation. The stage ends with a compulsory stage assessment class.
Step 3
In stage 3, you learn to drive in traffic. To be able to do this in the best possible way, you will also learn here about legislation, weight calculation and planning for driving.
Step 4
In the last step, you will go through a course. Courses in accident preparedness, first aid, road safety courses, load securing courses and track safety courses.
1. Introduction
1.2 Current topic from class B (1/2)
Class B
Are you coming straight from the Class B driveway and lack practical experience from traffic? Or have you driven a car for many years, but have forgotten much of the syllabus? When you take the class D pass, you are expected to remember a good part of the material from class B. Here we will look at the most important - i.e. what is most relevant, when you are going out in traffic with a heavy vehicle.
Important topics from class B!
- Interaction
- The driving process
- See the rules
- Obligation to give way
- Traffic regulation
1. Introduction
1.2 Current topic from class B (2/2)
Interaction
Interaction between road users is crucial for good traffic flow and safety. When you drive a heavy vehicle, you are extra visible in traffic, and some road users will be extra aware of your driving. You should therefore be aware of which signals you send out to your fellow road users. You should also use your attention to get help from other road users, as this increases the flow of traffic.
Typical situations where you can contribute to good interaction:
- Road with several lanes in the same direction: Stay in the right lane if you can, so that traffic can pass you on the left. When merging, it is important that you drive predictably, so that the traffic you merge with feels safe.
- Obligation to give way: If you are obliged to give way, slow down in good time and show the other road users that you comply with the obligation to give way. If you drive too aggressively, the traffic you have to give way to may stop. This results in poor traffic flow.
The driving process
The driving process is the process from discovering a traffic situation to taking action. For example, the time it takes from the time you see a moose in the road until you have stepped on the brakes.
When you drive a car, your brain has to process many driving processes at the same time. If you are attentive, alert and clear, you spend less time perceiving and making decisions. It is good for road safety. Experience also helps to influence how long one spends on the driving process.
The driving process is divided into four:
- Sense: Your eye is receiving information, but your brain hasn't processed it yet.
- Perceive: The brain recognizes what you see and what is happening.
- Decides: You consider various solutions for further action, and choose one of them.
- Act: You implement what you have decided to do.
As a truck driver, you must be careful in traffic situations. Your vehicle is less agile and operations take longer. In addition, the potential for damage is high.
Damage potential
The ability of something to cause damage by accident. A large and heavy car has a great potential for damage, because it can quickly cause a lot of damage in the event of an accident.
See the rules
When you travel in traffic, you must constantly obtain information about the traffic situation. You get 90% of this information through your vision. You interpret the behavior of other road users and adapt your own driving accordingly. But in order for others to be able to interpret you in the same way, you must be clear and correct. If you follow the se rules, it will be easier to keep an overview, and thus also to act correctly:
See rules:
- Look far ahead.
- Move your gaze.
- Take an overview.
- Be seen and understood.
- Always look for a way out.
Obligation to give way
If you have a duty to yield, you must not obstruct or disturb the road user for whom you have a duty to yield.
It is important to communicate that you will comply with the duty to yield. You should therefore slow down in good time. Then you avoid other road users slowing down because they are unsure. If they have to slow down because of you, you have actually breached the duty to yield - because it requires you not to disturb the traffic you are giving way to.
Traffic regulation
Many people struggle with this subject when they have to take the theory test for class B. Although regulation of traffic is not on the curriculum for class D, this is basic knowledge that you must have before you start the bus pass. Regulation of traffic is, among other things...
- police, traffic rules, traffic lights, signs and road markings
- the relationship between these – the pyramid of authority
- rules for stopping and parking
- rules for driving on the motorway
- crossing a level crossing
The pyramid of authority.
Plan transition
A level crossing is a place where a road crosses a train, rail or tram track.
2. The driving
2.0 Introduction
Chapter 2: The drive
Driving a heavy vehicle presents a good number of traffic challenges that you are not used to from class B. Driving itself is probably best learned through practical exercises and driving lessons, but it is good to know something about the various challenges you will face in the city and on country roads.
In this chapter we will look at:
- 2.1 Traffic rules for buses
- 2.2 The size of the bus
- 2.3 Blind spots
- 2.4 The weight of the bus
- 2.5 Other driving
- 2.6 Control tasks
2. The driving
2.1 Traffic rules for buses
Special rules on speed
There are several special speed rules for buses. You must familiarize yourself with what applies to the bus you are driving.
- Class 1 buses, i.e. city buses with many standing spaces, must never drive faster than 70 km/h.
- Bus class 2, the suburban buses with slightly fewer standing spaces, must never drive faster than 80 km/h.
- Bus class 3, which are tour buses without standing places, can travel at up to 100 km/h. All seats must have seat belts, and the bus must have tires that are approved to drive at 100 km/h.
You must of course never exceed the speed limit, and you must always adapt your speed to the driving conditions.
Obligation to give way for buses from stops
On roads with a speed limit of 60 km/h or less, traffic is obliged to give way to buses leaving a stop. The bus driver must use direction lights to show that the bus is leaving.
Even if the traffic has to give way to the bus, you as a bus driver are obliged to avoid danger. Therefore, you must always show caution when leaving a stop, even if the others have a duty to give way. You should not drive until you know it is ready.
2. The driving
2.2 The size of the bus (1/4)
A large car takes up more space
Due to the size of the HGV, more is required of a HGV driver than an ordinary passenger car driver.
Now that you are moving up to a heavier class, it is important to reflect on this and what challenges you encounter now that you will be driving a much larger car.
§ 3 The basic rule for traffic
You may remember this one from the class B syllabus:
Everyone must travel with consideration and be alert and careful so that no danger can arise or damage be caused and so that other traffic is not unnecessarily obstructed or disturbed.
This is at least as important when you are driving a heavy vehicle.
Driving a big car
In this film, you see some situations where the size of the vehicle comes into play.
2. The driving
2.2 The size of the bus (2/4)
Intersections and roundabouts
Driving through a busy intersection by bus can be stressful. There are a number of things you need to think about:
- Overhang – On a bus, a large part of the body protrudes in front and behind the axles. This is called an overhang. When turning to the right, the rear overhang can swerve across the lane to the left of the bus. If you turn left, the overhang could hit the pavement, or crash into a sign. It is important to remember the overhang when driving a bus.
- Turning radius - In addition to large overhangs, the bus has a long distance between the front axle and rear axle - and this gives the bus a very large turning radius. It needs a lot of space to turn.
- Borrowing space – Overhangs and turning radius mean that you have to borrow space from other lanes when turning. In such cases, good and clear communication is particularly important. Which lane you borrow space from will depend on the layout of the intersection, the view you have of the crossing road and the willingness of other road users to interact with you.
- Be prepared – You need to think about the location and potential conflicts or obstacles before entering an intersection or roundabout.
A bus needs a lot of space at intersections. You depend on interaction.
Car body
The car's exterior parts. The body is usually made of steel, aluminum or plastic.
2. The driving
2.2 The size of the bus (3/4)
Distance to road users
You should maintain a distance of 5 seconds or more to the driver in front. Modern buses have good brakes - but as the potential for damage is so great, you need a large margin of safety.
- Distance before uphills: Before longer uphills, it may be a good idea to drop even further behind the traffic ahead. Then you can give in a little extra before the hill starts without getting too close to the traffic in front, and you get the speed into the hill.
- Distance on the sides of the vehicle: When passing slow-moving road users, you must take into account that your vehicle creates air pressure that can be uncomfortable for the person you pass.
Remember!
The traffic rules require that you must be able to stop on the stretch of road that you have an overview of, and in front of any foreseeable obstacle.
Damage potential
The ability of something to cause damage by accident. A large and heavy car has a great potential for damage, because it can quickly cause a lot of damage in the event of an accident.
2. The driving
2.2 The size of the bus (4/4)
Location in roadway
There are several important things to keep in mind when choosing a location in the roadway:
- Avoid stopping at intersections - Buses are long. Do not attempt to drive through an intersection if you risk being stopped and blocking crossing traffic.
- Interaction – Your location signals to other road users where you intend to drive. Positioning yourself incorrectly can lead to confusion and poor interaction.
- Place on the side – Place yourself in the middle of your lane, so that no small road users can lie down in the blind spot next to you.
- Overtaking a two-wheeler on a country road - The air pressure created by a bus when overtaking can be uncomfortable for small cars, mopeds and cyclists. You should therefore keep at least 1.5 meters distance from the road user you pass. In many cases, it is better to slow down yourself and rather not pass.
Narrow roadway
Large vehicles are wide, and on certain stretches there is not enough space to pass oncoming vehicles without the risk of collision. When it's tight, you have to drive extra carefully:
- Avoid the shoulder - It can be tempting to pull over to the far right in the lane to avoid stopping for oncoming traffic. However, you should avoid this. The road shoulder may be weak, and it is not certain that it can withstand the weight of a bus.
- The speed - When two large vehicles meet on a narrow road, both must slow down and ensure that the passage can be made safely. If necessary, one must stop.
- Unclear - If the road is unclear and narrow, slow down. You must be able to stop for unforeseen obstacles.
- Meeting places and bus shelters - On long, narrow stretches, you should use meeting places and bus shelters to let the traffic behind you pass.
Road shoulder
The road shoulder is the part of the road that lies outside the curb line. The road shoulder is therefore not intended for motorized vehicles. Pedestrians must basically walk on the shoulder of the road and cyclists can choose to cycle on the shoulder of the road.
2. The driving
2.3 Blind spots
Blind spots
Blind spots are a problem for all motorized road users, and especially for large cars. It is important to be aware of your blind spots.
You can't know what's in your blind spot because you can't see it. Not even in the mirror. But you can catch traffic that is heading into your blind spot. If you are aware of it, you can still have some control over the blind spot. It also helps to move in the seat, and position yourself so that it is difficult for others to end up in your blind spot.
Many modern buses have a camera, where you can see what is in the blind spots.
Important!
- Turning right: If you are turning right at a junction or roundabout, it is very important to have an overview. Cyclists and two-wheelers easily disappear in the blind spot on the right side of the vehicle.
- Slow down: If you are unsure whether there are vehicles in the blind spots on the side, you can slow down a little so that they appear in the side mirror, or come up to the side of you.
It is not only the blind spots that are difficult to follow. It is also difficult to keep track of all the areas you can see, and at the same time keep your eyes on the road.
And remember!! It is not certain that the road users in your blind spot know that they are in your blind spot. They may think you can see them and act accordingly.
2. The driving
2.4 The weight of the bus (1/4)
A large car weighs more
It is not without reason that we refer to trucks and buses as heavy vehicles - a fully loaded bus is very heavy and has enormous power.
This means that a bus has great damage potential – it can do a lot of damage if something were to go wrong. In addition to that, the weight of the road network in Norway is struggling. Almost all road wear comes from heavy traffic. This gives you as a driver an important responsibility, to drive carefully and safely, and to comply with weight restrictions for the road network and vehicle.
2. The driving
2.4 The weight of the bus (2/4)
Accelerate with a heavy vehicle
Large vehicles take longer to get up to speed than smaller vehicles. Therefore, there are a number of things you must watch out for:
- Avoid stopping before intersections. - As far as possible, you should slow down well in advance of a crossing or a pedestrian crossing. In this way, you may be able to avoid a complete stop of the vehicle, and contribute to the flow of traffic. It is also more environmentally friendly. Stopping and starting a heavy vehicle requires a lot of power and takes a long time.
- Keep moving. - It's a good idea to slow down before you have to, for example in front of intersections. But don't slow down if you don't have to - your bus uses a lot of power on acceleration.
- Interact with other road users – Because your vehicle is so heavy and slow, you will need a large gap when crossing the road, or entering a lane. In some situations, you have to have help by having someone give way to you, even if they don't have to. In such situations, interaction with other road users is very important.
Obligation to give way to buses!
On roads with a speed limit of 60 km/h or less, you are obliged to give way to a bus flashing its lights from a stop. It makes it a little easier for you - but you still have to be careful.
Slow down with a heavy vehicle
Because heavy vehicles have a long stopping distance, you have to be good at planning your speed reduction.
- Brake in good time if you see that you have to stop. A bus that brakes suddenly is uncomfortable for the passengers, and it can also be dangerous for the traffic behind you.
- Slow down before going downhill. If you have a low enough speed at the start of the hill, the auxiliary brakes can manage to keep the speed low enough, so that you don't have to use the service brake all the way down the hill. Care should always be taken with prolonged use of the service brake. They can get hot and the vehicle can catch fire. They can also be glazed and lose their effect.
Deceleration!
Another word for slowing down is deceleration.
Auxiliary brake
The auxiliary brakes should save the normal brakes (the service brake), which can be damaged if they are used too much and for too long. There are several types of auxiliary brake: engine brake, electromagnetic brake and turbine brake.
Service brake
Heavy vehicles have several braking systems. The service brakes are the brakes you activate when you press the brake pedal, which brake the wheels directly using a brake disc. It is also called a foot brake.
The service brake has two brake circuits.
Glazing
Also called fading. Glazing are smooth brake pads.
Brakes work due to friction: the brake pad is pressed against the brake disc on the wheel, and the wheel is unable to spin any more. Then the car stops. If the brake pad is glazed, i.e. smooth, it will not slow down as well.
Weak braking over a long period of time can lead to glazing. But it can also cause a lot of braking over a short period of time. Controlled sudden braking can prevent glazing.
Brake length
When talking about slowing down a vehicle, the terms inattention distance, reaction distance, braking distance and stopping distance are often used. You may remember these terms from the training in class B - and now that you will be driving a bus, they are at least as important.
- Inattention span: when a hazard occurs, it takes some time before you notice it. The distance you drive in this time is called inattention distance.
- Reaction time: once you've spotted the danger, your brain takes some time to process the situation and decide to slow down. The reaction length is the distance you leave behind you during this time.
- Braking distance: the distance you need to stop the vehicle after you have stepped on the brake.
- Stopping distance: reaction distance and braking distance combined.
These concepts should remind us that slowing down takes time. And even if it is only a matter of a few seconds, it quickly adds up to many metres.
Braking distance and speed
If you increase the speed, the braking distance is increased. And if you slow down, the braking distance decreases.
The square of the change in velocity
The braking distance therefore changes if the speed changes. However, the braking distance changes much more than the change in speed: a small change in speed can lead to a large change in braking distance. That's because the braking distance changes with the square of the change in speed.
What is the square?
A bus travels at 60 km/h, and has a braking distance of 25 metres. The bus then increases its speed to 80 km/h. What then happens to the braking distance?
We know it is increasing. It increases with the square of the change in speed. But what is the speed change? You can find the speed change by dividing the new speed by the old speed. It becomes 80/60=1.33. The change in speed is therefore 1.33. To find the square of this, you multiply the number by itself. The square of the change in speed is therefore 1.33x1.33=1.77.
The braking distance changes with the square of the speed change, which is 1.77. This means that the braking distance increases by 1.77. The brake length of 25 m x 1.77=44 metres.
The increase from 60 km/h to 80 km/h gave 19 meters longer braking distance. It increased from 25 m to 44 m.
2. The driving
2.4 The weight of the bus (3/4)
Uphill
You may have experienced lying behind a heavy vehicle on an uphill slope. It can be quite slow. As a truck driver, you have to have a long view, so you notice uphills in good time. This is how you can organize your driving.
- Before long slopes, you should make sure you have good speed with you, because it is difficult to pick up speed once you are on the ground. It is also important to utilize the engine's torque and be aware of which gear you are using.
- Some long climbs have crab fields on the far right of the roadway. These are intended for vehicles that are unable to maintain the speed of other road users. If you sleep here, you avoid creating a queue.
Torque
The force with which the shafts are rotated. Measured in Newton meters (Nm).
Torque is a characteristic of the car, just like horsepower. But as a rule, we talk about torque as the power a wheel has in a given situation, and how this power can be best utilised. RPM affects the torque in a car, and the correct RPM provides effective acceleration.
2. The driving
2.4 The weight of the bus (4/4)
Slippery road
In Norway, winter is long, and it often comes with difficult driving conditions. Smooth driving places strict demands on both driver and car - and this applies particularly to heavy vehicles.
- Hills - If the ground is slippery, you may risk not being able to get up. In the worst case, the bus may start to slide backwards and be impossible to stop. It can end in a downhill run.
- Graded road - If the road is graded, and you cannot maintain a high speed, the slope in the road may simply be too steep. Then you can slide sideways.
- Chains - Before driving up or down a hill, you must consider the chain. Once you've hit the ground running, it may be too late.
The grip of the road
You must know what kind of grip you have at all times.
Salting, temperature fluctuations, weather, type of surface and humidity mean that road grip can change quickly, without you noticing. You can test road grip by doing a controlled emergency brake.
Dosed
A metered road is sloped where the road bends, so that water runs off, and bends feel pleasant. If you drive too slowly through a dosed bend, you can slide sideways off the road.
2. The driving
2.5 Other driving (1/3)
Backing up with a bus
Reversing a bus is different from reversing a car. The bus is much larger, and it has larger blind spots. You also have a much poorer view to the rear, so you are completely dependent on the correct use of mirrors.
- Blind spots – There are large blind spots around the vehicle. According to the law, you have a duty to make sure that reversing can take place without danger. Be careful.
- Helper - Even if you are equipped with the best mirror equipment and reversing cameras, in some cases it will be best to use a helper. The location of the helper is important: The person must have an overview of blind spots and maintain contact with the bus driver.
- Plan - It is important that you think through how the backing is to be done. When you drive forward before reversing, you should think about your position. Position yourself so that you have a favorable starting point when you start reversing. Back as short as possible.
- Control - You must have control over whether someone can enter the zone behind and near the sides of the bus when you reverse. If there is already someone there, you have to wait to back up.
- Drop it – If you can avoid backing up, don't back up. It is the safest option.
Many buses have a high rear window. This gives poor visibility to the rear.
Helper
If you cannot maneuver the vehicle safely, the law requires you to use a helper.
The helper must be positioned so that she can see both you and your blind spot. She also needs to see what is behind the vehicle. It is smart to stand on the left side, because it is the closest to the driver.
2. The driving
2.5 Other driving (2/3)
Overturning hazard
Heavy vehicles with a high center of gravity are particularly prone to overturning. Lorries are particularly vulnerable - but if you drive a tall bus in hilly terrain, there is also a risk of overturning. Many do not know how little is needed. You should be especially careful in the following situations:
- Turns – Turns can provide lateral acceleration. Slow down and drive in a controlled manner.
- Roundabout - In a roundabout you expose the vehicle to strong lateral forces and the risk of overturning is great. This applies especially in small roundabouts, because the turn is tight. Keep your speed low and wait to accelerate until you are completely out of the roundabout.
- Elevation difference – Many bad roads have deep ruts. In these cases, you need to be aware of your location. If the difference in height between the right and left wheel pairs is too great, the vehicle can overturn.
- Evasive maneuver – If you suddenly have to steer away from a danger, you can have the vehicle thrown. This can lead to overturning.
2. The driving
2.5 Other driving (3/3)
Overtaking
Overtaking is associated with risk regardless of the type of vehicle. Overtaking requires you to think through:
- How long a route do I have at my disposal? Buses are long, and need a very long overtaking distance.
- How much power, or speed, do I have in the vehicle? Buses are heavy, and need a long time to get up to speed.
- Is it safe, or will it seem intimidating? Your passengers want a comfortable ride. They don't want scary overtaking.
Overtaking by bus is demanding. In most cases, it is best not to.
Overtaking section and sighting section
You drive at 80 km/h, and end up behind a car traveling at 60 km/h. You will drive by. How many meters do you need?
The overtaking distance you need to get past the car is approximately 200 metres. But in order to be able to make such an overtaking, you need a good view ahead. The sight distance should be at least three times the overtaking distance, i.e. 200 x 3 = 600 metres.
If the car drives at 70 km/h , you need 400 meters to drive past. Then you need 400 x 3 = 1200 meters straight.
Overtaking and interaction
To be overtaken
If you are overtaken, you should show cooperation. You can make overtaking safer for everyone by keeping an eye on your mirrors and slowing down.
The flashing light
Many HGV drivers use their flashing lights to warn the traffic behind that it is safe to drive past. This is both dangerous and prohibited. It is not good to know whether the light means a clear path, a sudden obstacle or a lane change. As the danger of misunderstandings is so great, such use of light should be avoided.
3. The vehicle
3.0 Introduction
Chapter 3: The vehicle
In this chapter, we will look at how the bus is built. This is called KKVM, which stands for the vehicle's construction and operation.
If you know KKVM, you better understand how the vehicle should be operated in different traffic situations. This gives you peace of mind on the road, and you become a better driver. You must also know the KKVM in order to carry out the vehicle checks that your employer may require of you.
In this chapter we will look at:
- 3.1 The structure
- 3.2 The management
- 3.3 Wheels, tires and chain
- 3.4 Engine and drive train
- 3.5 Brake and brake circuit
- 3.6 Light and the electrical system
- 3.7 Emergency equipment
- 3.8 Daily supervision and safety check
- 3.9 Control tasks
3. The vehicle
3.1 The structure (1/2)
Bus
Driving license class D applies to vehicles with more than 8 seats in addition to the driver. There are many different types of bus.
Class 1
Bus class 1 has a low floor and is usually used for city driving. Many people call it a city bus. Class 1 buses have both standing and seated places, and are not allowed to drive faster than 70 km/h. They also have no requirements for seat belts.
In a class 1 bus, more than 45% of the passenger seats are standing seats.
Class 2
Bus class 2 is slightly higher. They often drive slightly longer distances, and often have to visit high-speed roads on their routes. They have both standing and sitting places, and an upper speed limit of 80 km/h. Seated passengers must wear seat belts.
In bus class 2, a maximum of 45% of the passenger places are standing places.
Class 3
Class 3 buses are tall, and have space for luggage underneath. They have no standing places at all, and they can drive up to 100 km/h. Seat belts are required.
3. The vehicle
3.1 The structure (2/2)
Frame and bodywork
The bus has a frame and a body. The frame forms the "floor" of the bus.
On most buses, the bodywork is the load-bearing element. The bodywork is very strong, and acts as the skeleton of the bus. All components are attached to the body.
Axles
The axles sit on the frame. An axle is the rod to which a pair of wheels is attached.
Drive shaft
The drive shaft is the shaft that is rotated by the engine so that the vehicle moves forward. It is connected directly to the motor.
On the drive shaft there is a differential.
Differential housing
In the picture you can see a rear axle, with wheels on each side. The large case in the middle of the axle can be called a differential housing. Inside the differential housing is the differential.
Differential
The differential is a type of gear that allows the wheels on the drive shaft to rotate at different speeds, but with the same power.
Wheels at different speeds?
Imagine a bus driving in a circle. The circle that the two outermost wheels must follow is much larger than the circle that the two innermost wheels must follow. But all the wheels must complete their circle in the same amount of time. Therefore, the outermost wheels must run faster than the innermost.
It is not so common to drive around in a circle. But the same principle applies when cornering: the wheels in the outer corner must go faster than the wheels in the inner corner. The differential ensures that this is possible.
Suspension
Between the axles and the frame there is suspension. The suspensions ensure that the axles can move in relation to the frame. Then the wheels, which are attached to the axles, can follow the unevenness in the road without the frame having to do the same. If the frame had to follow all the bumps, the ride would have become uncomfortable, and the entire structure would have worn out more quickly from all the rocking.
Air suspension
The most common suspension on a bus is the air suspension. It dampens with air bellows, which sit in the attachment between the wheel and the axle.
In this picture you see the air suspensions on a rear axle.
The advantages of air suspension are:
- The air suspensions can be adjusted manually. This way you can lower the bus when people get on, so that the step between the pavement and the bus is smaller.
- The system measures axle weight, which the driver can monitor in the cab.
- The air suspensions are equipped with a height sensor, which can measure the distance to the ground. This is how it registers whether the bus is rear-heavy or front-heavy. It can then adjust the amount of air it has in the bellows, and straighten the bus, so that it does not tilt.
Leaf spring
Another type of suspension is the leaf suspension. It consists of leaves that lie close together, in an arch. It dampens because the bow can be bent. Many heavy vehicles have leaf springs at the front and air springs at the rear.
Air suspension
Shock absorber
As the suspensions are so resilient, they can act a bit like a spring. They can therefore make the bus bounce a little, or dove up and down on uneven roads. This means that the bus has less contact with the ground, and less traction. To counteract this, you have shock absorbers. Shock absorbers are used in conjunction with both leaf and air suspension.
Worn shock absorbers result in poorer road grip and poorer driving comfort.
The shock absorber is adapted to the weight of the vehicle. At the top and bottom of the shock absorber there is a kind of ring, which is called an eye. The upper eye is threaded onto the frame, and the lower eye is threaded onto the shaft.
This is what a modern bus looks like.
Liners
Another thing that should dampen movements is the liners.
The liners are usually made of rubber, and sit on almost all joints and fasteners in the bus. They sit where two components are attached to each other, in nuts, around screws or other fixings. The liners prevent the components from rubbing against each other.
As they sit in the fasteners, they also seal small gaps in the construction. This prevents slack and vibrations.
If the bus squeaks, the bushings may be darkened or damaged.
This liner must sit on the shock absorber.
3. The vehicle
3.2 The control (1/2)
The steering
Now we will look at the bus's steering.
Steering wheel
When you drive a car, you turn the steering wheel. The steering wheel is connected to a mechanism at the front axle, which turns on the wheels when the steering wheel is turned.
Wheels that can turn are called steering wheels. The front axle always has steering wheels.
Three-axle buses often have two steering wheels. The front axle, and the rear axle in the bogie. It gives a better turning radius.
Steering mechanism
The vast majority of cars are steered with a steering gear.
Steering screw
Here you see a larger picture of the steering worm.
The steering column goes into the steering worm. The part of the steering column that is inside the steering worm is called the worm screw.
Around the grub screw is a nut, which is called a ball nut, nut or piston. Inside the ball nut is a ball bearing, which ensures that the nut slides freely around the screw.
When you turn the steering wheel, the auger rotates. Then the threads on the auger go up or down. So do the ball nut, sector shaft and pitman arm.
Ball bearings
When something has ball bearings it means it has balls inside. You can, for example, have balls inside a ball nut. The balls enable the nut to slide almost frictionlessly around what it is screwed around.
Ball bearings are also used in bicycle handlebars, moped handlebars and skateboard wheels.
Power steering
All modern vehicles have power steering. The servo provides an auxiliary force that makes it easier to turn the wheels with the steering wheel. This makes driving smoother, and the car becomes easier to finesse. If the servo is damaged, you cannot drive. It is neither permitted nor safe to drive a bus without power steering.
How does power steering work?
Right next to the steering screw there is an oil tank with hydraulic oil and a pump. The oil reservoir and the pump are connected to the steering worm with a hose. They are also connected to each other.
When you turn the steering wheel, oil is pumped into the steering worm. The oil has high pressure, and is pumped so that it provides thrust to the right or left - depending on which way you turn. The thrust force therefore works together with the force from turning the steering wheel.
If there is an oil spill under the car, there may be a leak in the power steering.
Turn when the bus is stationary!
Power steering makes hatch parking easier, because it becomes easier to turn the wheels when they are stationary on the ground.
But! You must not turn on the wheels of a stationary bus if you do not have to. This wears out tires and steering.
3. The vehicle
3.2 The control (2/2)
Steering properties
Steering characteristics are how the vehicle is steered. The steering characteristics are the result of many things at once, including:
- lead
- tire air pressure
- number of axles: single axle or bogie?
- cargo and passengers, and their location. That is, where the center of gravity of the bus is.
A bus has some steering characteristics that you don't always think much about when driving normally on good roads. But on uneven roads, or in bad traffic, they can become more noticeable. In such situations, one can, for example, notice oversteer or understeer.
Oversteer and understeer
Override
Oversteer means that the vehicle turns more than the steering angle should indicate.
Undermanagement
Understeer means that the vehicle turns less than the steering angle would indicate.
Oversteer or understeer?
It is not easy to say exactly what leads to understeering and what leads to oversteering. There are far too many different things that influence.
There are nevertheless special situations that are known to lead to oversteer or understeer, and it is useful to be aware of these.
Steering wheel
A steering turn is a given turn of the steering wheel. Therefore:
Full steering wheel travel means that the steering wheel is turned as far as it will go. A little steering is turning the steering wheel a little.
Steering wheel travel of 4 cm should be enough for the wheels to start turning.
Override
Bus with center of gravity far back, on dry roads
When the bus comes to a bend, the driver turns the steering wheel, so the bus follows the bend. But the weight at the back has such good speed straight ahead - and it will continue straight ahead. It will continue forward due to inertial forces. The weight at the back is like a force, which pushes the rear end out of the turn.
When the center of gravity is at the back, the front has somewhat less grip, because it is lifted up. And when the bus turns with its wheels, the bus is turned around the center of gravity at the back. Then the turn is reinforced, and tighter than the steering wheel would suggest.
Inertia forces
When a car turns sharply, loose objects inside the car fly straight ahead. They do not follow the turn to the car. It is because of the objects' inertial forces. They are slow - it takes time before they join the car on the bend.
When you let off the gas, it takes time for the car to slow down - this is also due to the forces of inertia.
Undermanagement
Slippery road
Slippery driving will usually always lead to understeer. Regardless of whether the bus is rear- or front-heavy.
If the road is slippery, the bus can slide out in a bend. That's because the tires don't get enough grip on the road - so it slides off. If the bus slides straight ahead in such a situation, it can be called understeering.
Low air pressure in front wheel
Too low air pressure in the front wheels can cause understeering. Wheels with little air have a larger surface area against their surface, and hold better. Then more force is needed to turn.
Understeer with a heavy car
Many people think that a heavy car will always create oversteer, because the steering wheels at the front have good traction. But a heavy bus with the center of gravity at the front will quickly be understeered.
When the bus comes to the bend and is about to turn, the weight is well on its way forward. It will continue forward, just like in the previous example, where the bus was rear-heavy. The difference is the center of gravity: now the center of gravity is further forward on the bus. It will therefore not rotate in the same way. Both because the back of the bus does not have the same forces, and because the steering front wheels have good grip.
What is happening now, and which leads to understeer, is that the bus that wants to turn has to fight against the forces in the front center of gravity, which wants to go straight ahead. This reduces the swing.
Bogie lift
Lifting the axle in a bogie can also affect the steering characteristics. The main rule is that the car is understeered if you lift an axle that is in front of the drive axle, and oversteer if you lift one that is behind the drive axle.
The most common bogie has a drive axle at the front, and a running axle at the back. When you lift the running shaft, you may experience oversteer.
Control and maintenance of the steering
Daily control
- Before driving, you should check for fluid under the car. Fluid under the car may indicate a leak, for example from the power steering.
- When you start the car, pay attention to how the steering wheel behaves: if it does not become easier to turn when you turn on the engine, there is something wrong with the servo.
Periodic control
- Read in the instruction manual how to check the oil in the power steering, and include this in your routines for periodic checks.
- Check the steering worm. Check that the hoses that go into the steering worm are tight and that nothing looks strange or crooked. Also look for slack. The steering gear is accessible from the grill, or hatch on the side.
- You can check the steering reach in the steering wheel while driving in a place where you can turn exactly as you want: drive straight ahead, and then turn the steering wheel as far as it will go, in both directions. Pay attention to the driving - it should be smooth and without noise.
- You can test the dead movement of the steering wheel when the car is stationary and the engine is off. Turn the steering wheel, back and forth, with small movements. Feel that the wheels are moving even if the steering wheel movement is small. If it is possible to rock the steering wheel without the wheels moving, it is deadlock. You should not have more than 2-4 cm dead space.
- You should also check the directional stability. Drive straight ahead and let go of the steering wheel carefully. The bus should not pull to any side when you let go of the steering wheel. If you let go of the steering wheel in a turn, the steering wheel should straighten.
3. The vehicle
3.3 Wheels, tires and chain (1/5)
Wheels and tires
The wheels on a bus are exposed to great stress. The great forces that are at play during braking, acceleration and driving wear on the tyres, and place strict demands on quality. Now we will look at:
- Tire marking
- Air pressure
- Wheel bearing
- Pattern depth
- Studded tires
- Chain
Tire marking
All tires must have a tire marking that describes the endurance, size and area of use for the tyre.
What is the width and height of the tire?
An important part of the marking is the one that tells about the size of the tyre. It is then important that you know how to measure the height and width of a tyre:
The width of the tire is the width of the rubber, when the tire is seen from the front. The height of the tire is the height from the ground up to where the rim starts. Rim diameter is the diameter of the rim itself, without the rubber around it.
Width, height and profile ratio
295/80 tells about the size of the tyre. 295 is the width of the tire in millimeters. 80 is something called a profile ratio. This is the tire's height in relation to its width, expressed as a percentage.
Radial tires, diagonal tires and rim diameter
R stands for radial tyre. This says something about how the cord layers in the tire are located. The cord layers are the material the tire is made of, and which hides under the rubber. In a radial tyre, the long side of the cord layers is in the same direction as the wheel turns. This is the most common tire type.
22.5 is the size of the rim. 22.5 is the diameter of the rim, given in inches.
Type of tire
M+S is a type of tire. M+S stands for mud and snow, and these are therefore winter tyres. On this tyre, it is extra clear, as it says winter.
Load Index and speed index
143/141 J says something about load and speed. 143 and 141 are both so-called LI values. LI stands for Load Index. The vehicle license states what is the minimum requirement for LI on vehicles. The first number, here 143, applies if the tire is used as a single wheel. The second number, 141, is if the tire is part of twin wheels.
You can check how heavy a vehicle you can drive with tires that have an LI of 143 or 141 in a Load-Index table.
J shows the maximum speed of the tyre. J is a speed index, which means 100 km/h.
The carriage card
In point 12 of the vehicle license there is information on what type of tires the vehicle must have. The vehicle license in the picture belongs to a vehicle that must have a minimum LI 158 on the front axle, 150 on the next axle and 150 on the last axle. The minimum speed of the tires is K, which is 110 km/h.
We can also see what the standard tires are for the different axles: axle 1 must have tires with a width of 315 mm, and the height must be 80 percent of that - i.e. 252 mm. The tire must be a radial tyre, with a rim of 22.5 inches in diameter.
The letters S and T stand for single wheel and twin wheel.
Tables – Load index and speed index
Load index refers to a given capacity, stated in kilograms. You can see what the different LIs can withstand here. You can see the speed index here.
Diameter
Diameter is the longest path over a curve:
Twin wheels
Two wheels right next to each other. Axle with twin assembly thus has 4 wheels in total.
Load index
Table of Load Index and endurance in kilograms.
Speed index
Table of speeds different speed indices stand for. Speed indices are used on tire markings.
Air pressure
Air pressure is also important. In order to achieve optimal traction, the tires must have the air pressure they are intended to have.
In the bus's instruction book, you can see what the air pressure in the tires should be. Air pressure is given in bar, psi, kg/cm2 or kPa.
It has been decided internationally that one should switch to only using kPa. But this takes time, and until further notice you will come across several of these designations.
How do you check if the tires have the correct air pressure?
You can use an air pump both to fill with air and to check air pressure. When you put the air pump on the valve on the tyre, the pressure gauge on the pump will react immediately, and the arrow on the gauge shows what the pressure is. You should check the air pressure every 14 days.
Many new buses have automatic tire pressure monitoring that alerts you if something is wrong with the air pressure. You will be notified of errors on the screen or warning lights in the cab.
Another thing you should check regularly, which can also reveal incorrect air pressure, is the wear on the tyres. Tires with the wrong air pressure wear faster, and they wear unevenly. When the tire wears unevenly, spots and patterns may appear in certain places. How worn the tire is can tell you something about what is wrong with the air pressure.
What does the wear pattern mean?
- Wear in the center of the tire's tread indicates excessive air pressure in the tire.
- Wear on both sides of the tire indicates insufficient air pressure.
- Punctual wear indicates a fault in the shock absorbers or an imbalance in the tires and rims.
- Wear on one side of the tire indicates incorrect wheel alignment.
- Wear in a large, limited area, a bit like a spot, indicates that the wheel is blocking too much when braking.
The tread of the tyre
The part of the tire's surface that is in direct contact with the road. When everything is in order with the tire, the surface of the tread wears evenly.
Tire wear
Tire wear
Air pressure
Incorrect air pressure wears out the tires. Tires have a maximum service life if they have the correct pressure. Low air pressure will also increase fuel costs, because rolling resistance will be greater.
If the tires are 20 percent too high pressure, the service life will be 90 percent of the normal service life. If the tires are 20 under-inflated, they have 85 percent of their normal lifespan. If the pressure is 60 percent too low, the service life will be only 25 percent of the normal service life.
Speed
High speed wears on the tires.
It varies how much a tire can withstand, but a tire that has a maximum service life at a speed of 55 km/h only has 60 percent of this service life if it is driven at 100 km/h.
Of course, you should not drive at 55 km/h all the time - this is only an example, to show the importance of speed.
3. The vehicle
3.3 Wheels, tires and chain (2/5)
Wheel bearing
Where the wheel is attached to the axle is a wheel bearing.
One of the tasks of the wheel bearing is to reduce the friction that occurs between the wheel and the axle when the wheel spins. You don't want friction - it creates resistance and heat.
Slack
If there is slack in the wheel bearing, or between the wheel bearing and the axle, the wheel bearing cannot remove the friction. Quite the contrary, slack like this can lead to vibrations and overheating - and that can develop into a fire. Fires in heavy vehicles often start in damaged wheel bearings.
To avoid this, regular checks must be carried out.
Tire imbalance
When a tire has been manufactured, the factory checks whether it is balanced. That is, that it rolls smoothly, without pulling to the side, jumping or wobble.
If it does not roll smoothly, there is an imbalance in the tyre. This means that the weight of the tire is not evenly distributed. Irregularities can create large movements or vibrations in tires at high speed - so the manufacturer must do something about this before the tire is put into use.
Cover plate
To balance an unbalanced tire, the manufacturer attaches small weights where there is a lack of weight. They weigh a few grams and are attached directly to the wheel.
If you experience a change in driving characteristics, restlessness, jumping or wobbling in the wheels when you drive, it may be due to an imbalance. The balancing weights may have fallen off, or there may be dirt or grit inside the wheel. You must check this.
It takes little weight to create an imbalance in a tyre, so it is not always possible to find the cause on your own. In that case, you must deliver the tire to a workshop or a tire dealer. Most tire dealers can balance tires.
Wheel weight.
3. The vehicle
3.3 Wheels, tires and chain (3/5)
The construction of the tire
The tire is made up of cord layers and rubber. The cord layers are woven pieces of steel strip or fibre, and this is what gives the tire its hold.
Radial tires
There are many ways to lay the chord layers. Most buses run on tires where the cord layers are mainly on the tyre's runway, so-called radial tyres. The cord layers lie with the long side along the runway, and do not cover the entire width of the tire. Therefore, it is softer on the side, and has better grip in turns.
Tires where the cord layers run along the width of the tire are called diagonal tires.
Low profile tires
Low-profile tires are a type of radial tire.
Profile
The tire's profile is the height as a percentage of the width. A 100-profile tire is as tall as it is wide, and on a 55-profile tire the height is 55 percent of the width. That something has a low profile means that it is much wider than it is tall. A wheel with a low-profile tire will therefore appear low and wide.
The advantages of low-profile tires are that they weigh less and provide lower rolling resistance. Many heavy vehicles have low-profile tires.
The tire's profile is on the tyre. 295/80 means that it is an 80 profile tyre, meaning that the height is 80 percent of the width. It is not to be considered a low-profile tire.
295 is the tire width in millimeters, and 80 is the height as a percentage of the width. 80 percent of 295 is 236, so this tire is 236mm tall.
3. The vehicle
3.3 Wheels, tires and chain (4/5)
Seasons
There are many different types of tyres, and many rules relating to the use of tyres. You must know the rules for studded tyres, winter tyres, chains and requirements for tread depth.
Northern Norway
- From and including 15 November to 31 March, you must have winter tyres. On drive axles and front steering axles, you must have tires marked with 3 peak mountain snowflake. On the other axles, you can use tires marked 3 peak mountain snowflake, or Mud and Snow.
- From and including 16 October up to and including 30 April, you must drive with tires that have a tread depth of at least 5 mm, and have a chain in the car. During this period, studded tires are legal.
The rest of Norway
- From and including 15 November to 31 March, you must have winter tyres. On drive axles and front steering axles, you must have tires marked with 3 peak mountain snowflake. On the other axles, you can use tires marked 3 peak mountain snowflake, or Mud and Snow.
- From 1 November up to and including the first Monday after the 2nd Easter Sunday, you must wear a chain in the car.
- From 1 November up to and including the first Sunday after the 2nd Easter Sunday, you must have a pattern depth of at least 5 mm. During this period, studded tires are legal.
Pattern depth
The pattern depth is how deep the grooves in the tire pattern are. This has a lot to say about road grip. Too little tread depth can lead to poor road grip, increased risk of aquaplaning and increased braking distance. Therefore, it is not safe to drive with tread depth that is too low.
Check pattern depth
You can easily check the pattern depth by looking at the tires. If the tire is very worn, it is easy to see, but if not, a depth gauge is useful. A depth gauge is a small ruler that you insert into the pattern groove. The requirements for pattern depth are:
- Summer tires must have a tread depth of at least 1.6 mm.
- There is a requirement of 5 mm tread depth 16 October–30. April in Northern Norway, and 1 November–first Sunday after 2 Easter Sunday in the rest of Norway.
Depth gauge.
Wear warning
Many tires have so-called wear warnings. Wear indicators are numbers engraved in the rubber, for example 100, 60 and 40. To check the wear, you must see what the highest visible number is. This number shows how many percent of the original pattern depth remains. For example: if 60 is the highest number visible, 60 percent of the pattern depth remains.
Wear warning. The 100% figure has been worn away. But 80, 60 and 40 remain. This means that at least 80% of the tread depth remains.
Can the tire be used?
The quality of a tire is not only dependent on air pressure, tread depth and surface wear. You must always make an overall assessment of the tire before using it.
Is the tire safe and suitable for the bus?
Hydroplaning
Hydroplaning occurs when so much water gets between the tire and the road that the tire does not make contact with the road. The tire will float on the water and you will lose control of the vehicle.
The likelihood of aquaplaning increases with worn tire patterns and at higher speeds.
Studded tires
Studded tires are very harmful to the environment, and it is only permitted to use studded tires during the studded tire period.
All your wheels do not have to have studded tires, but wheels on the same axle must be the same. That is, if you have studded tires on the left rear wheel, you must also have studded tires on the right rear wheel. If you have twin wheels, it will hold with a studded tire on one of the twin wheels, i.e. a total of two studded tires on one axle.
Winter tires both with and without studs.
The studded tire period
- Nordland and Troms and Finnmark: from and including 16 October to and including 30 April.
- The rest of the country: from and including 1 November to and including the first Sunday after the 2nd Easter Sunday.
You can also have studded tires outside the studded tire period, if this is necessary for safe driving.
Chain
In Northern Norway, you must have a chain in your car in the period 16 October to 30 April. In the rest of Norway, you must have it from 1 November to the first Monday after Easter Monday. You must also wear a chain outside of these periods, if you can expect smooth conditions. It is mandatory.
You must bring at least 3 chains: one of them must be adapted to the front wheel, and two must be adapted to the drive wheel. When it's winter, chains are often the only thing that can get you up a steep hill.
Put on chain
Putting on a chain can be knotty and difficult - and it often has to be done in cold and bad weather. But chain is very important. If you use a chain, you will avoid getting stuck, and you will be a safer and better bus driver.
Chain before the ground
If you are going to put on a chain to get up or down a hill, it is important that you put it on before the hill. It is too late if you have started driving and are standing in the middle of the hill - then the whole bus can slide away. This can lead to closed roads and danger to yourself and others.
Before long slopes, there is often a chain site, where you can attach a chain without being in the way of traffic.
Think security
It is important to think about safety when putting on a chain. If you do not have a place to chain, and have to stop along the road, you must leave the parking lights and warning lights on. You must also wear a reflective vest.
It is also important to position yourself so that you do not get caught if the bus starts to slide.
3. The vehicle
3.3 Wheels, tires and chain (5/5)
Putting on a chain - an example
There are several different types of chain. Remember to practice with the type you will use.
Alternatives to regular chain
Automatic chain
This type of chain is automatic and activated directly from the driver's seat. When you press the automatic chainring switch, a small sprocket will lower so that it comes into contact with the inside of the tire. The friction causes the sprocket to rotate and creates enough centrifugal force to fling the chains out and under the tire. This means that there is always a chain between the tire and the ground, and that the road grip is improved. Automatic chains work at speeds of up to 50 km/h and are approved as chains.
Sand spreader
This is a small box located in front of each drive wheel, which is operated directly from the driver's seat. There is usually one button per spreader. Sand spreader can be convenient, but it also has disadvantages. If you forget to fill it up, it is of no use, nor if the sand is frozen.
Inspection and maintenance of wheels and chain
Look for tears, splits and other damage in the tires. Look for wear in the tyre's tread, and possibly see if the wear can tell you anything about what is wrong. Also check that the tires have the correct air pressure.
If the vehicle has twin wheels, the air pressure must be checked daily, on all four wheels. You can do this by hitting the wheels with a hammer and listening to the sound. All the wheels should sound exactly the same. If there is one wheel that sounds different, it probably has the wrong air pressure. When you have twin wheels, you must also check that there are no stones between the wheels in a pair of wheels.
If you have newly fitted tyres, the nuts must be re-tightened after approximately 50 km of driving. This is very important. See in the instruction book how much force you should apply to the wheel nut wrench when tightening.
You can detect an imbalance in the tires during normal driving. Then the car will make noises and abnormal vibrations.
The tread of the tyre
The part of the tire's surface that is in direct contact with the road. When everything is in order with the tire, the surface of the tread wears evenly.
Twin wheels
Two wheels right next to each other. Axle with twin assembly thus has 4 wheels in total.
3. The vehicle
3.4 Engine and drive (1/4)
The bus engine
The vast majority of buses have a diesel engine, located at the very back of the bus. The gearbox is located in front of the engine. An intermediate shaft exits the gearbox, which is turned by the engine. The intermediate shaft is connected to the drive shaft, and causes the wheels to rotate.
Four beats
Heavy vehicles usually have a four-stroke engine. It is called a four-stroke engine because the engine operates in four stages.
A diesel engine.
Cylinder
These four steps take place inside the cylinders, and all cylinders carry out the same four strokes - but at different times. The strokes are intake stroke, compression stroke, working stroke and exhaust stroke.
The strokes cause the piston in the cylinder to move up and down. They thus create mechanical force.
Step 1: Intake stroke
The piston goes down into the cylinder. Air is drawn in from an open valve at the top.
Step 1. Air enters the cylinder.
Step 2: Compression rate
The valve that sucked the air in is closed.
Stage 2. Compression stroke: air is trapped.
The piston goes up. And as the air cannot escape, it is compressed. When air is compressed very much, it becomes compressed air. And air at very high pressure becomes very hot. The compressed air in the piston becomes over 700°c.
Step 2. Compression stroke: the air is compressed.
Finally in stage 2, diesel enters the cylinder. The diesel is injected from a nozzle at the top of the cylinder.
Stage 2. Compression stroke: diesel is injected.
Step 3: Work rate
The temperature in the compressed air is so high that the diesel starts to burn. This increases the pressure in the cylinder, and the piston is pushed down.
Step 3. Work stroke: the diesel is ignited.
Step 4: Exhalation rate
Compressed air is now burned inside the cylinder. This is exhaust.
Stage 4. Exhaust stroke: exhaust.
Then the piston moves up, forcing the exhaust out of a valve. The exhaust is released from the vehicle.
Step 4. Exhalation rate: emission.
How do the pistons create power?
The pistons are lined up inside the engine. The pistons are connected by all being attached to the same crankshaft, which is rotated by the pistons.
Crankshaft.
All the pistons work in the four strokes, but not at the same time. At any given time, one of the pistons is pushed down by the diesel ignition, which thus rotates the crankshaft so that the other pistons are also pushed up or down. The pistons that are pushed up will either be in stroke 2 and compress air, or be in stroke 4 and push out exhaust. The pistons that are pushed down are either in stroke 3 with the ignition, or in stroke 1 with the air intake.
1. diesel ignition. 2. the exhaust is pushed out. 3. air is compressed. 4. new air is taken in.
The diesel creates mechanical power
It is the ignition, i.e. the diesel, which causes the piston to be pressed down, and helps the other pistons to move. It is therefore the diesel that turns into mechanical power, and thus drives the crankshaft around.
Why is the bus moving forward?
The pistons thus cause the crankshaft to rotate. The road axle is connected to the countershaft, so it also rotates. The intermediate shaft goes into the differential, and it transfers the rotation to the shaft. Then the wheels rotate, and the bus moves forward.
3. The vehicle
3.4 Engine and drive (2/4)
Diesel
Many buses run on biofuel. But the most common is still diesel. Diesel is made from crude oil.
Diesel and cold
When diesel gets sufficiently cold, wax crystals form in the diesel. The wax crystals can clog the fuel system, so no diesel gets to the pistons. Then the bus stops.
There are many measures to prevent this from happening. The diesel manufacturers add substances that prevent the wax from clumping and can pass through. Some vehicles have electrically heated diesel filters, which prevent the wax clumps from forming at all.
In addition, diesel is made that withstands the cold better, so-called winter diesel. It contains less wax than that used in the summer, which is called summer diesel. Winter diesel and summer diesel have different fog points and blocking points.
- The cloud point of the diesel is the temperature that makes the diesel cloudy and cloudy, because the wax has started to separate from the diesel. Foggy diesel can be used.
- The blocking point is the temperature at which the wax clumps become so large that they can block a diesel system. Then you can't use the diesel. In theory, you can use the diesel if it is hotter than the stated blocking point.
Summer diesel has a blocking point of -12°. There are two types of winter diesel: one that can withstand -24°, which is often used in the coastal area with mild winters, and one that can withstand -32°, for inland areas, where the winters are much colder. It is not dangerous to mix summer diesel and winter diesel, but winter diesel with summer diesel in it naturally cannot withstand as much cold as pure winter diesel.
There is also one that can withstand even more, which is called light diesel. It can be used in temperatures down to -50°.
The diesel lid.
Winter diesel all year round?
You can use winter diesel all year round. But as the winter diesel has added substances that make it withstand the cold better, it costs more than the summer diesel. Most people prefer to use summer diesel in the summer months.
Diesel system
Here we will look at how the cylinders get diesel from the diesel tank.
It is the fuel explosions in the cylinders that make the car go forward. In order for the engine to stay within the strict emission requirements, the engine must be efficient, and make as much power with as little fuel as possible. To achieve this, the nozzles must inject the right amount of fuel, at exactly the right time.
The piston must receive diesel at exactly the right time.
The fuel system is mainly pumps, valves and pipes which are attached to the engine itself. On all modern cars, the system is electronically controlled.
Here is a Scania engine. Feed pump and diesel filter are marked purple.
Feed pump, diesel filter and injection pump
On the engine, there is a feed pump that sucks in diesel from the diesel tank. The feed pump sends the diesel through a filter, which removes condensation water from the diesel. The diesel then goes up to an injection pump. The injection pump is an intelligent high-pressure pump that supplies diesel to the cylinders depending on how hard the gas pedal is depressed.
Feed pump at the bottom left, and diesel filter at the top.
Common rail
The injection pump sprays diesel into a rail, which is a type of pipe that distributes diesel to all the nozzles. This is called the common rail system, and almost all heavy vehicles have it. In a non-common rail engine, each nozzle has its own supply pipe.
Here are the injection nozzles. The pipe under the nozzles is the common rail pipe.
Bleed the diesel system
If you run the tank empty, the feed pump sucks air in between the tank and the nozzles. You should fill so often that you avoid this. But if there is air in the system, it must be removed. This is called bleeding the diesel system. Some cars have automatic ventilation - and then you don't have to do it yourself.
Approach
If your bus has a fuel system that needs to be bled, you must do this every time the tank is completely empty. You must see exactly how it should be done in the bus's instruction book - but a general procedure is:
In the coach's instruction book, you can see if your fuel system needs to be bled, and where the breather valves are located on the engine.
Air screw on the diesel filter.
Hand pump on the feed pump.
3. The vehicle
3.4 Engine and drive (3/4)
Control of exhaust
Large parts of the engine are not available to you. But you can spot faults by feeling how it behaves, sounds or by looking at what comes out of it - namely the exhaust.
There should be no smoke in the exhaust when the engine is at operating temperature. If it is, the color of the smoke can tell what is wrong:
- White smoke: often caused by water in the exhaust. If the engine is not warm, it is normal to see white smoke or steam in the exhaust.
- Blue smoke: if there is oil in the exhaust, it can turn blue. Oil in the exhaust can come from worn piston rings, or general wear and tear on the engine.
- Black smoke: there can be many causes of black smoke. It could be that the pistons get too much diesel at a time, or that the pistons are unable to burn up all the diesel. There could also be a fault in something called the turbocharger, or a clogged air filter.
Diesel engine.
Piston ring
The piston rings go around the pistons. They must ensure that there is a complete seal between the cylinder and the piston.
Engine oil
You must check the engine oil level every single day before driving. The oil must also be changed regularly - the oil loses important properties over time. Motor oil has many important tasks:
- Lubrication - lubrication ensures less wear on the engine's parts.
- Cooling – the oil helps keep the temperature in the engine down.
- Cleanse – the oil can remove dirt and grime.
- Tight - in areas where it should be tight, for example in the cylinders, the oil can seal small gaps.
- Dampening – the oil can dampen collisions between components inside the engine.
Different types of oil
In the bus's instruction booklet you can see what kind of oil the bus should use. Motor oil is also available in several thickness grades. The colder it is, the thinner the oil you should use.
3. The vehicle
3.4 Engine and drive (4/4)
Gives
A bus has many more gears than cars. The bus has a more variable weight and is less agile than a car. It needs many gears so that it can adapt the forces in the drive train to any situation.
This is what it looks like in an automatic transmission.
What does the gear do?
The engine causes the crankshaft to rotate. The crankshaft exits the engine and enters the gear, where the rotational speed can be changed, before being transferred to the intermediate shaft. The intermediate shaft goes to the drive shaft, and causes the wheels to rotate.
The gearbox thus determines how much rotation the intermediate shaft gets from the engine.
Here is the engine and drive train of a Volvo bus. The gearbox is between the engine and the intermediate shaft.
Operation of the gear
All new buses have automatic transmissions - but there are still many older buses in circulation that do not. You must familiarize yourself with how the transmission system of the bus you will be driving works.
Automatic gearbox that can be operated with buttons.
3. The vehicle
3.5 Brake and brake circuit (1/10)
Brakes
Many of the braking mechanisms in a bus are completely inaccessible to you and you are not expected to repair or check the entire braking system.
But it is important that you know how the brakes work. Then you will be better able to recognize faults or unusual things, and you will be more confident in handling the brakes. Functioning brakes are very important for road safety - and if the brakes are handled incorrectly, it can be very dangerous.
Brake circuit
A brake circuit is the entire braking mechanism, right from the pedal, handbrake or other trigger, and out to the wheels that are braked down.
Multiple brake circuits
The service brake, which is also called the foot brake, is the brake you use by pressing your foot on the pedal. The service brake consists of two brake circuits. The two brake circuits are independent of each other - so if one of the circuits fails, the other can slow down the vehicle alone. This provides increased security. The vehicle regulations require that all heavy vehicles have a two-circuit service brake.
Most have three circuits that brake:
- a circuit for front axle
- a circuit for rear axle
- a circuit for parking brake
The brake circuits.
Braking power
If you roll a ball across a table, you can slow it down or stop it completely by touching it. Then you stop the ball directly with your own power.
Alien power
You cannot stop a bus with your own power. It stops when you press down on the pedal - but the pedal is only a valve that sets other forces in motion. These forces are created in the braking system. That is why it is said that the bus has a braking system that uses extraneous force to stop the vehicle.
The ball is stopped by its own power.
Brake circuit
The brake circuit is hoses that run between different components, right from the pedal to the wheel. The hoses are filled with compressed air.
Compressed air is compressed air. Exactly how compressed it is, i.e. how high the pressure is, is measured in the measurement units bar or kPa. You can recognize these measuring units from the lorry's tyres, which also contain compressed air. In the brake system there are hoses in which the compressed air moves.
The brake circuits
Here you can see what the brake circuit looks like. The compressed air passes through thick wires that are attached to the frame.
3. The vehicle
3.5 Brake and brake circuit (2/10)
Feeder section – common feeder section
Now we will look at the part of the brake circuit called the common feed part. It is called a supply part because it supplies compressed air to the brakes. It is common because it supplies air to all the brakes: front brake, rear brake and parking brake.
The compressed air is stored in the supply section, ready to be used to turn the brakes on or off.
Here, the common feeder part is colored.
We start at the front of the bus, where the air for the compressed air system enters.
Air filter. Cleans the air that is sucked in.
Compressor. The compressor takes in the air and compresses it. The air then becomes compressed air.
Air dryer. Between the compressor and the air dryer there is a coiled pipe. It is looped to give the compressed air a longer journey to the air dryer. Then the compressed air has time to cool down. In the air dryer, the water in the compressed air must be removed.
Pressure regulator. The air inside these pipes must be under pressure - but it is important that there is not too little or too much pressure. This compressed air regulator ensures that the air has the right pressure: it can turn the compressor on and off, and thus choose when the air should be compressed more and when it should not.
Safety valve. If the compressed air regulator stops working, the pressure in the brake system can become far too high. Then it can explode. The safety valve ensures that this does not happen: the valve releases air if it detects that the air pressure is too high. Some buses have the safety valve on top of what is called the wet tank.
Protection valve. The protection valve, or multi-circuit valve as it is also called, is connected to all the brake circuits. When the bus has normal pressure in the circuits, i.e. between 7 and 12 bar, all brake circuits share air. That is, they are not cut off from each other.
The protection valve shuts off the circuits from each other when the pressure in one of the circuits drops to 6 bar. This ensures that a leak in one circuit does not empty the entire system of air.
Compressed air tanks. Compressed air for use in the braking system is stored here.
Feed part - front axle
From the compressed air tanks, the compressed air goes out to various brake circuits. We start with the front axle circuit.
Feed part front axle.
The first part after the compressed air tank is the front axle's own feed part. Here you will find pressure gauges, foot brake valve and pedal.
A little further forward in the car, the tube splits in two. One part goes to a manometer, and the other part goes to the foot pedal.
Manometer: The manometer shows the air pressure inside the tube. This pressure gauge is visible from the cab.
Foot brake valve: Foot brake valve can close and release air. It is activated by the brake pedal.
The foot brake valve
The foot brake valve closes the brake circuit, so that the compressed air stops.
When the brake pedal is depressed, the valve opens and the compressed air passes through, allowing it to move on to the brakes and activate them.
In modern vehicles, the air is not retained by the front brake valve, but by a valve right next to the brake. Then the brake pedal is used to send an electronic signal to the valve, that it should let air into the brake, and activate it.
This is called an electronically controlled braking system.
Maneuver part - front axle
On the other side of the foot brake valve, is the front axle's control part. It is this part that the air passes through when it has to activate the brakes, when you step on the brakes. The maneuvering part has a quick-release valve and a brake bell.
Maneuver part front axle is marked in yellow.
The brake bells: The brake bell is what activates and deactivates the brakes with compressed air. When the pedal is depressed, air enters the brake bell and the brake is activated. All wheels have brake bells.
The quick-release valve: When you release the brake pedal to deactivate the brake, the air disappears from the brake bell. It is the quick-release valve that lets the air out of the brake bell, emptying it in 0.1 second.
3. The vehicle
3.5 Brake and brake circuit (3/10)
Rear axle
The brake circuit for the rear axle works exactly the same as the brake circuit for the front axle. But it has some instruments that the front axle doesn't.
Feed part rear axle
In this picture you can see the air tanks and the feeder part for the rear axle. The feed part for the rear axle comes out of the air tank belonging to the rear axle. The feeder part goes forward in the car, and splits in two. One pipe goes to a pressure gauge, and the other goes to the foot brake valve. Just like the brake circuit for the front axle.
Maneuver part rear axle
From the foot brake valve, the maneuvering part of the rear axle begins. It goes backwards in the car again, to something called ALB.
ALB stands for Automatic Load-Dependent Brake Force Regulator. It is smart to have:
The brakes in these braking circuits are very strong. If the car is empty and weighs little, they can almost be too strong. They become so strong that the car stops suddenly as soon as you press the pedal. ALB ensures that the braking force is adapted to the weight of the car. It does this by measuring the axle load on the rear axle.
ALB is not required for cars with ABS brakes - but all Swedish-made cars have ALB.
Quick-release valve: This is the same type of valve as the one on the brake circuit of the front axle. It must ensure that the compressed air comes out of the brake bell quickly.
Maneuver part rear axle.
ABS
ABS brakes are brakes that slow down vehicles without the wheels being locked for the entire braking distance. That is to say: the brake is turned on and off many times during deceleration. This allows you to control the vehicle during deceleration.
You cannot drive a vehicle with locked wheels.
Foot brake valve and brake bell
As mentioned – when the foot brake is stepped on, compressed air comes from the supply part, through the maneuvering part and out towards the brakes. The compressed air enters a brake bell.
The compressed air goes through the maneuvering part and out to the brakes.
The brake bell
The brake bell is attached to the brake mechanism on the wheel. All wheels have a brake bell with service brake, and on the rear wheels the bell also has a parking brake. It is such a watch that we are going to look at now.
In the brake caliper, there is one chamber for the service brake and one for the parking brake. During normal driving, there is air in the parking brake, and no air in the service brake.
Chamber for service brake on the left, and chamber for parking brake on the right.
When you press the foot brake pedal, air enters the service brake chamber. The air pushes on the piston of the service brake, and a push-rod pushes the brake pad on the brake disc.
Air in the service brake chamber causes the car to slow down.
Service brake
3. The vehicle
3.5 Brake and brake circuit (4/10)
Parking brake
Now we have looked at the braking circuit for the front axle and rear axle. The third brake circuit is the parking brake, which we will look at now. It also consists of a feeder part and a maneuvering part.
Feed part parking brake
One-way valve: when the air has to leave the tank, it must go through a one-way valve, which ensures that the air only goes out, and not in.
Filling valve: the filling valve makes it possible to fill the circuit with air, for example in an emergency where the circuit is empty of air and the compressor is broken. It can also be used to take air from the circuit, for example to fill the tires with air.
Shut-off valve: also called blocking valve. Must ensure that the parking brake does not disengage when you start the bus, and the pressure builds up. The valve is accessible from the driver's seat, and the driver must open this valve to disengage the parking brake.
Lever for P-brake: this is the lever that the driver uses inside the cab.
Maneuver part parking brake
The maneuvering part for the parking brake goes from the lever to the P brake and out to the brake bell on the rear wheel.
Maneuver part parking brake in red.
Brake bell parking brake
As we saw on the previous page: during normal driving there is air in the parking brake, and no air in the service brake. The parking brake must have air to be off.
Chamber for parking brake on the right.
To apply the parking brake, the chamber must be emptied of air. This is what happens when you use the P-brake lever.
Brake bell without any compressed air.
The parking brake must therefore be on when the bus and the brake bell are empty of air. It is the vehicle regulations that determine that the bus must have brakes that work without air. This is to ensure that the bus has brakes to use, even if the air system were to fail.
Parking brake
3. The vehicle
3.5 Brake and brake circuit (5/10)
How are the wheels braked?
The aim of the braking system that we have now gone through is of course to slow down the wheels, so the bus loses speed. Most buses have a type of brake called a disc brake.
Disc brakes are the most common type of brakes.
Disc brake
The disc brake slows down by pressing a brake pad on a disc that is attached to the wheel.
Brake pad.
The brake disc sits between two brake pads, inside a caliper. The caliper presses the brake pads onto the brake disc, thereby slowing down the wheel.
Drum brake
The drum brake is not so common on new buses, but it is often used on trailers. In the drum brake, the brake pads are pushed outwards onto a drum that is attached to the wheel.
The drum has been removed and is located at the bottom left. The curved brake pads are clearly visible.
The drum brake is much heavier than the disc brake. It is also more demanding to maintain – for example, it is much easier to change brake pads on a disc brake. And as the brake mechanism is inside a closed drum, it gets hot easily.
3. The vehicle
3.5 Brake and brake circuit (6/10)
Auxiliary brakes
If you brake a lot in a short time, the brake pad can become worn. The coating can melt, and destroy the friction between block and disc. This is called glazing. The brakes can also overheat and start to burn.
On long downhills, buses have to brake a lot. To prevent glazing or overheating, buses have auxiliary brakes, which can relieve the brake pads.
There are different auxiliary brakes, and it is important that you know the auxiliary brakes of the bus you will be driving. Modern buses alternate between which brakes it uses by itself. If you drive an older bus, you have to change which brake you use yourself.
Engine brake
Engine brake is also called exhaust brake. The brake closes or narrows the discharge of exhaust from the cylinders, so that the pressure in the cylinders increases. Then the working pace of the cylinders becomes lower, and the effect of the engine lower.
This is what the mechanism in the exhaust brake looks like. The lid can be opened and closed.
Electromagnetic brake
Electromagnetic brake is a set of brake discs around the intermediate shaft, controlled by electromagnetism. This brake is powerful, but it can get very hot with use. As electric operation becomes more common for heavy vehicles, electromagnetic braking systems may become more important. They can also function as a dynamo. Dynamo creates electricity from movement, which is useful in an electric car.
An electromagnetic brake sits on the intermediate shaft, and slows the rotation.
Oil retarders
Oil retarders are also called turbine brakes, or simply retarders. This brake is quite common. It is attached to the intermediate shaft, right up to the gearbox.
When you turn on the retarder, compressed air enters an oil chamber in the retarder. The oil is then forced out of the chamber and into a rotor which is connected to the intermediate shaft. The oil slows down, i.e. decelerates, the speed of the intermediate shaft so that the wheels spin more slowly.
The retarder can also ensure that the bus maintains the same speed at all times.
The retarder is very efficient, but it can get hot. The driver is then notified and can turn off the retarder from the cab.
Lever to turn the retarder on and off.
Dangers when using the auxiliary brake
The brakes can also be relieved by driving in a way that means you don't have to accelerate and brake all the time. This relieves the service brake and auxiliary brakes.
Because the auxiliary brake is supposed to prevent dangerous, overloaded service brakes - but there are dangers when using an auxiliary brake as well:
- Auxiliary brakes only work on the rear axle. This means that the rear axle and rear wheel are exposed to wear regardless of which brakes are used.
- On slippery roads, the engine brake can cause the bus to skid, because it can lock the rear wheels. Therefore, you should consider turning off the automatic auxiliary brake if you are driving on slippery roads.
- On slippery roads, the engine brake can also cause the engine to stop, because the drive wheels are locked. Then the power steering disappears. In such a situation, you must turn the engine back on as soon as you can, so that you get back the power steering.
- Electromagnetic brake can get very hot. This can lead to sparks in the electrical system. It can destroy electrical circuits.
Here you will soon be using the vehicle's auxiliary brakes.
3. The vehicle
3.5 Brake and brake circuit (7/10)
EBS
Now we will look at something called EBS, which is standard in new buses. EBS stands for Electronic Brake System, and in Norwegian we call it an electronically controlled brake system.
The EBS controls the compressed air valves in the brake circuit electronically, making the brakes faster. EBS also enables other electronic systems, such as anti-spin and stability program.
Accrual time
In buses without an electronically controlled brake system, the compressed air must travel through the entire maneuvering section and out to the brake bell when the brake is to be activated. This can take up to 1 second. This delay is called lead time.
The compressed air has to travel a long way.
In buses with EBS, the air can be stored right up to the brake bell, and let in with an electronically controlled valve, which is operated from the brake pedal. This happens very quickly - so new cars no longer have any lead-in time.
The compressed air must travel briefly.
Other benefits of EBS
- As the brakes become faster, they also become more precise, and the brakes on the different wheels are activated exactly the same. This provides increased stability.
- The EBS monitors the wear on the brake pads and adjusts the braking force so that it is the same on all wheels, even if the wear is different.
- Hill start assistance: The EBS holds the brake for a short while after the brake pedal has been deactivated. The vehicle thus stands still, instead of rolling backwards instantly.
- The EBS reads the axle load, so the driver can see it on a panel in the cab.
EBS provides a shorter run-in time and more stable braking.
3. The vehicle
3.5 Brake and brake circuit (8/10)
ABS breaks
Locked wheels, i.e. wheels that cannot roll, cannot steer the car. Locked wheels slide in all directions, completely independent of the wheels' rolling direction. Then you have no control over the vehicle.
ABS brake is a brake that turns on and off many times during deceleration, so that the wheels alternate between being locked and being free to roll. This allows the vehicle to be partially controlled during deceleration. ABS also ensures that the vehicle does not skid due to locked wheels.
ABS stands for Anti Blockier System, and in Norwegian you call such brakes anti-lock brakes. The vast majority of vehicles in Norway have ABS brakes, and it is mandatory for motor vehicles with a permissible total weight of over 3.5 tonnes.
Important about ABS!
ABS does not work if you drive below 10 km/h, nor when reversing.
ABS provides better control during braking.
Use of ABS
The wheels of a vehicle do not lock during normal braking. During normal braking, the brake pad is pressed calmly and in a controlled manner on the brake disc, slowing down the speed of the wheels and gradually stopping the wheel. Then there is no need to steer at the same time as braking, so the ABS is not activated.
The ABS is only activated in situations where the wheels lock due to heavy braking - so-called emergency braking. The ABS then ensures that the car can still be steered, so that evasive maneuvers become easier. When the wheels are rolling, there is also less likelihood of skidding.
The ABS kicks in during emergency braking. But it can also kick in during normal braking if it is very slippery, and the road grip is low.
Drive with ABS
You should drive a car with ABS in the same way as you would drive a car without ABS. This means that you cannot drive faster in corners or on smooth roads even if you have ABS. Your wheels can still slide. On dry roads, a car with ABS can actually have a longer braking distance than a car without ABS.
The point of ABS is therefore not to save you in normal driving, but to help you in emergency braking.
How does ABS work?
ABS is just like EBS – a system that controls some of the components in the brake circuit. The ABS uses the same computer as the EBS, and the two systems also share several components.
The computer perceives the revolutions in each wheel, through sensors. When the revolutions stop due to emergency braking, the computer opens the control valve at the wheels, and reduces the braking force, so that the wheel is no longer locked. Then the valve closes again, and the wheel locks again.
Then this happens many times one after the other, lightning fast, so that the wheel alternates between rolling and being locked.
Warning system ABS
When you turn on the ignition, the ABS warning light on the dashboard lights up. If the warning does not go off, there is a fault with the ABS. The brakes still work, but the fault must be repaired as soon as possible.
A bus with broken ABS, and which is not equipped with an ALB valve in the braking circuit, cannot be driven. The ALB valve regulates the braking force based on the weight of the bus. And a bus that has neither ALB nor ABS can get into dangerous situations, because the braking force is too great.
Control and maintenance
The electronic ABS circuit tests itself every time you turn on the ignition, and tells you if something is wrong. All you have to do is watch the warning light. It should light up at start-up and turn off immediately. In some buses, the lamp goes out when the wheels have started to move forward, or when the speed is over 7 km/h.
ASR
ASR is also part of the electronic braking system. ASR stands for Anti Slip Regulation, and we call it anti-spin regulation in Norwegian.
ASR adjusts the revolutions of the drive wheels in relation to each other, and in relation to the rest of the wheels on the vehicle. The aim of the adjustment is to give the wheels the speed that gives the best grip. The system perceives the number of revolutions with the sensor of the ABS, and adjusts by changing the braking force or engine power.
Adjustment with brake force
If one drive wheel spins when the bus is about to move, the ASR system sends air into the service brake of the fastest spinning wheel to slow it down a bit. When the wheel has slowed down so much that it has the same speed as the other wheel, ASR switches off. Now the wheels have the same speed, and the spinning wheel can be assisted by the other wheel's torque, to gain traction and to move the vehicle forward. Simply put, the system ensures that the wheels work together better.
Adjustment by changing engine power
If the speed is over 30 km/h, the ASR adjusts the revolutions of the wheels by adjusting the engine power.
When the bus is moving, the drive wheels may start to spin when the vehicle is about to accelerate. In such a situation, the drive wheels will rotate faster than the free wheels which are not spinning. ASR perceives this, and causes the fuel nozzles to reduce the fuel injection into the pistons. Engine power goes down. In such cases, ASR can adjust the revolutions with braking force in addition, to get the wheels at the same rotational speed.
Turn off ASR!
It can be useful to turn off ASR if you are going to drive on roads with loose surfaces, such as gravel. Or if you have chains on the wheels. ASR can be turned off with a button on the dashboard.
At speeds below 40 km/h, the threshold for activating ASR is increased. Then ASR will accept some loss of traction.
Torque
The force with which the shafts are rotated. Measured in Newton meters (Nm).
Torque is a characteristic of the car, just like horsepower. But as a rule, we talk about torque as the power a wheel has in a given situation, and how this power can be best utilised. RPM affects the torque in a car, and the correct RPM provides effective acceleration.
ESP
ESP stands for Electronic Stability Programme, and we can call it electronic stability control in Norwegian.
Among other things, ESP uses the sensor of the ABS system to monitor the number of revolutions and the angle of the wheels - i.e. the actual behavior of the bus. This is compared with data on the driver's choice of engine power and steering angle - i.e. what is the desirable behaviour. The system detects when the actual and the desired behavior do not match.
When a car skids, revolutions and wheel angles are not what the driver wants. ESP detects this and applies the brakes where needed.
To turn off a system
ABS, EBS, ESP and other systems use many of the same components and sensors in the bus to function. If the driver chooses to switch off a system, this will in turn affect other functions. If you turn off anti-spin/traction control, for example, ESP will stop working.
Therefore, do not switch off a function before you have checked in the bus's instruction manual about the consequences and how the various systems depend on each other.
3. The vehicle
3.5 Brake and brake circuit (9/10)
Condensation in the compressed air system
When air is compressed, it becomes hot. It is therefore hot compressed air that comes out of the compressor and into the compressed air system. When hot air is cooled, it loses moisture - and then condensation, or dew, forms in the compressed air system. The condensation collects in small pools of water inside the system.
It is never good to have water in a compressed air system, and when it is below zero it can be fatal. The water can freeze, preventing the valves in the brake circuit from working properly.
Drain
The water must be drained away. There are many different solutions to this problem and it varies from vehicle to vehicle. Modern buses have systems where the drainage occurs completely automatically, and older buses you have to drain yourself. This is stated in the instruction manual.
Air dryer
Modern buses have air dryers in the brake circuit. This drains by itself. The only thing you have to do then is make sure the drain valve is working.
The air dryer is located right after the compressor, so the compressed air has to pass through the air dryer before it gets further into the compressed air tanks and the rest of the system.
The braking system.
This is what the air dryer looks like. As a rule, the air dryer is automatically drained through a hole in the bottom of its container.
Air dryer.
Inside the air dryer are balls that attract moisture.
The balls attract moisture.
Borrow air
As you understand, there is nothing dangerous about draining air from the bus. It uses and produces air all the time. You can take advantage of this, for example if you need air for a tyre. You can then borrow air from the bus' brake circuits.
In principle, you can drain from any brake circuit valve. But many buses have their own valve designed for this, easily accessible and at a good working height. Here you can connect a hose and fill tires or other things directly from the bus.
This bus has an air outlet at the front near the grill.
Frost protection
Buses without an air dryer, and which are drained through a tank, also have something called frost protection. Antifreeze is a technical alcohol, which works inside the compressed air system and prevents condensed water from freezing.
If the bus has frost protection, you must ensure that the tank is never empty. You must also make sure that the bus uses anti-freeze, so you know that it prevents frost. You can check this by seeing that there is less frost protection in the container.
3. The vehicle
3.5 Brake and brake circuit (10/10)
Inspection and maintenance of brakes
A bus with faulty brakes can be fatal. Therefore, you need to know how to check for faults in the braking system. Even if the brake circuits are not directly accessible to you, there are several tests you can do from the cab and by listening to the car.
You are responsible for the vehicle when you are on the road - and if you learn to identify faults, you can avoid accidents.
Here we will look at:
- Identification of leakage in the feeder part, maneuvering part and parking brake
- Identification of leakage between circuits
- Checking the air dryer, protection valve and compressor
Leak
Leakage in the brake circuits means that the compressor has to work to maintain pressure. Low pressure in the brake circuits gives you less braking power to use, and in practice this means that you cannot brake as much in a short time. If the brake circuit is empty, the parking brake is applied, and the bus stops.
Listen for leaks
Make sure the brake circuit has full pressure. You can see this from the display in the cab. When you know the pressure is ok, you can stop the engine and walk around the car while listening. If you hear air seeping out, you have a leak in the feeder part.
To find out if you have a leak in the steering part, place an object between the brake pedal and the driver's seat, so that the brake is activated. Then you take another round while listening. If you hear anything now, there is a leak in the maneuvering part.
You can also listen for leaks in the parking brake circuit. Then you put wheel chocks in front and behind the drive wheels, and remove the parking brake. If you hear a leak now, it's in the parking area.
Wheel block.
Leakage between brake circuits
When the brake circuits have normal working pressure, of between 7 and 12 bar, they share air. Then both circuits will lose air if you drain the tank of one of them. But at 6 bar the protection valve shuts the circuits off from each other. At pressures below 6 bar, only the circuit you drain is drained.
You can check that the protection valve is working, and whether there is leakage between the circuits, by draining the brake circuits:
- Drain circuit 1 down to 5 bar. Then circuit 2 should have 6 bar, because the protection valve has closed off the circuit for draining.
- Then drain circuit 2 down to 3 bar. Then circuit 1 should still have 5 bar.
If the circuits do not behave as described above, there may be a leak or fault with the protection valve, or a leak somewhere in the circuit.
Overview of brake pressure in the cab.
Control of components
Many of the components of the braking system are completely inaccessible to you. But some you can still control.
Check protection valve
Pump the brake pedal until you have 4-5 bar in the circuit. A warning should then go off in the cab about low brake pressure. Then drain circuit 1, and check that circuit 2 maintains a pressure of 4–5 bar. At the next check, do the opposite: pump the brake until it is 4–5 bar, and drain circuit 2. Then circuit 1 must maintain a pressure of 4–5 bar.
Check compressor
Pump the brake pedal until the pressure is 4-5 bar. Start the engine and keep the revs high. Check that the pressure on the manometer or the display rises. Now you see that the compressor creates compressed air.
You can also check that the compressor is sending in clean compressed air, by tapping compressed air in the palm of your hand. Make sure you catch the first burst of compressed air that comes when you open the valve. Greyish moisture in the hand indicates oil in the compressed air, and a defective compressor.
3. The vehicle
3.6 Light and the electrical system (1/2)
Bus lights
The lights on the bus must ensure that you see and that others can see you. The vehicle regulations state all requirements for lights on vehicles. Here we will take the most important ones.
Low beam
The low beams must illuminate at least 40 meters of the road in front of the car.
High beam
High beams must illuminate the road for at least 100 metres, and be yellow or white. High beams should be used with caution.
Cornering and fog lights
You must have two approved lights that are used as cornering and fog lights. They must be connected so that they cannot light up without the parking lights, rear lights and license plate lights lighting up at the same time.
Reversing lights and marker lights
Reversing lights must only be on when reversing. Marker lights must be white and oriented forwards. All cars wider than 2.30 meters must have marker lights.
Lighting equipment is important.
The lantern
Before, it was incandescent lamps that were most common. Today, halogen, LED and xenon are used.
It is important to make sure that all the lights are working and that they are clean. Just a little dirt can reduce the light considerably.
Rear lights on a modern bus.
Control and maintenance of light
You must check that:
- the bulbs work. If you are going to change the bulb yourself, do not touch the bulb with your hands. Dirt from the hands solidifies when the bulb heats up, and the light deteriorates.
- the headlight wipers work.
- there are no cracks in the glasses.
- the reflectors do not have rust or other damage. They should be glossy, so they reflect the light correctly.
- all reflectors are in place, and that they are clean and working. Reflectors can fade over time, become damaged or wear off.
3. The vehicle
3.6 Light and the electrical system (2/2)
The electrical system
Here are the most important components of the electrical system. The location of the various components may vary from bus to bus.
The most important components of the electrical system.
Dynamo
The dynamo creates electrical current from the rotation of the crankshaft, and the bus uses this current during normal driving. The dynamo also supplies power to the battery. When the engine is off, the alternator is off.
Many buses with high power consumption have two dynamos.
The dynamo is on the engine.
Battery
The battery stores power from the alternator, so that the bus has power when the engine is off. When the engine is off, all active power consumers use the battery. The battery also provides power for starting the engine.
A bus usually has two batteries with 12 volts, which provide 24 volts in the circuit. Tour buses, which use a lot of battery in connection with stops and waiting, often have an additional battery circuit.
12-volt battery
Starting
The starter is like a small electric motor, which starts the diesel engine. The starter starts the engine with electricity from the battery, and is one of the biggest consumers of electricity in the vehicle. It only uses power when starting the engine.
The starter is also attached to the engine.
Fuses
All circuits are designed to withstand a certain amount of current. If they receive more current than they are designed for, they can get hot and start to burn. To avoid this, power circuits each have their own fuse, which breaks the power circuit if it gets too hot. When the current circuit is broken, it can no longer conduct current, and the generation of heat stops.
If a fuse blows, it must be replaced with a new fuse. If you are going to do this yourself, you must make sure that you insert the correct fuse, with the correct capacity. You must never insert a fuse with too large a capacity.
Basically, the circuit must withstand many of the power consumers being turned on, so the fuses must not blow during normal operation. When you have problems with fuses, you should always consider whether there could be something wrong with the electrical system.
Fuses in the ceiling.
Main switch
The main switch cuts the contact between the power consumers and the battery, so that the system is completely de-energized. It cuts all power, except the tachograph.
In addition to the main switch, there are also many other switches in the power circuits, which turn various instruments on and off in the bus. The switches turn off components by cutting off the power supply.
The main switch in the cab must be turned off when leaving the vehicle for the day.
Main switch.
The ignition
The ignition is activated with the car key. When you insert the key and turn, you turn on power consumers such as lights and air conditioning. If you turn the key even more, you start the starter. The starter starts the engine.
The ignition is in the cab.
Power consumers
The power consumers are everything that uses power, such as windscreen wipers, lighting, radio, mobile charging and starters.
A bus has many power consumers.
Auxiliary start with the battery
Buses often have downtime during the journey, where power consumers such as heating, radio, mobile charging and other things are switched on. When the bus is stationary, the alternator does not produce electricity, so in such cases the battery can be drained. Then you cannot start the car without help. To prevent such a situation, many buses have two circuits that are independent of each other: a circuit for consumption, and one for starting the engine.
If you have a flat battery and lack such starting assistance, you may be able to borrow power from another car. However, you must check this in the instruction manual - there are many modern cars that can neither give nor receive starting assistance.
Approach
If you find that your car can be started using another car, it must be done correctly - there is a lot that can be damaged by connecting incorrectly. You must also have correct and thick enough starter cables. The connection must be made in the correct order:
Auxiliary start.
Cracked gas
Explosion gas is a gas that consists of hydrogen gas and oxygen gas at the same pressure and temperature. It can occur at the batteries of a vehicle, as a product of the chemical process that charges them.
Carbon dioxide explodes if ignited. You must therefore be careful with sparks and fire around the battery on the truck. This is particularly relevant during assisted start.
Battery acid
Inside the batteries is battery acid. The battery acid stores energy, which the battery converts into electricity when it is used.
The acid is in separate chambers inside the battery, and all chambers have screw caps on top. The acid level must be checked regularly, and if it is too low, it must be topped up with distilled water. In addition to this, you should regularly check how efficient the battery is.
Battery.
Measure acid weight
A battery is good if it is charged efficiently. A battery that charges poorly, or fails to fully charge at all, is damaged. You can check how well a battery charges by measuring the density of the acid, after charging. This is called measuring the acid weight.
The acid weight is measured with a hydrometer. Open the screw cap on the chamber you are going to check, insert the hydrometer and take a reading.
Hydrometer.
The different acid weights mean:
- 1.28–1.26 : fully charged
- 1.23 : approximately 75 percent charged
- 1.20 : half charged
- 1.14 : not charged
A battery cell can be considered damaged if it has an acid weight of 1.23 or less when the battery should have been fully charged. The battery can also be considered defective if the difference in the acid weight of the different chambers is more than 0.03.
Remember!
A low acid weight only means that the battery is damaged if it has been charged for so long that the acid weight should have been higher. If the battery is not charged, the acid weight is low anyway. Also in a working battery.
3. The vehicle
3.7 Emergency equipment
The bus's emergency equipment
In the event of a fire, skidding or collision, you are responsible for the passengers. Then you have to know what to do.
You must also assist if other accidents occur, for example incidents that require first aid equipment. All buses are equipped with:
- emergency exits
- fire extinguisher
- first aid equipment
Emergency exits
All buses have emergency exits in the form of doors, windows or hatches.
Windows that can be used as an emergency exit are labeled EMERGENCY EXIT. They are equipped with an emergency hammer, with which you can break the window.
This bus has a window in the roof, which is used as an emergency exit if the bus has overturned.
This door can be opened with a trigger that removes the air pressure from the door opener, allowing it to be opened manually.
Fire extinguisher
In the event of a fire, you are responsible for taking measures to extinguish, rescue or escape.
All buses have fire extinguishers readily available. If the device is not visible, the location must be marked. It is always close to the driver's seat. Buses with more than 22 passenger places must have at least one fire extinguisher of at least 6 kg. Possibly two with lower power.
The fire extinguisher must be ready for use, and equipped with a simple user manual that enables passengers to use it as well. But you still have to familiarize yourself with how it works.
First aid equipment
All buses have first aid equipment easily accessible from the driver's seat.
Defibrillator
Many buses have defibrillators. It should be used on people who are unconscious and not breathing normally. The defibrillator is easy to use.
3. The vehicle
3.8 Daily supervision and safety check
Daily control
Good routines
A good bus driver has good routines for daily checks. This is also important during the run-up.
There is a lot to be checked during a daily check, and it is wise to decide on a sequence. Start by taking a look under the hood, then walk around the car, and finish in the driver's seat.
Under the hood
- Oil – Check that the oil level looks good before driving. Top up if necessary, but do not fill above the maximum level.
- Coolant – Check that you have enough coolant on the vehicle.
The red ring is the oil dipstick.
Around the vehicle
- Leakage - On the trip around the vehicle, check underneath to see if there has been a leak from the engine, transmission or other mechanics.
- Lights – Check that all the lights are working.
- Tires – Check the wheels for wear, tears and other damage.
- Ice and snow - During the winter months, you also need to look for ice or snow that needs to be removed.
The driver's seat
- Visibility - Do you have sufficient visibility from the driver's seat? Ice and dog must be removed. The mirrors must be clean.
- Seat and steering wheel - Adjust the seat and steering wheel so that you sit comfortably.
- Before starting - Do any warning lights come on before you start the engine?
- After starting - Do any warning lights come on after the engine has started?
- Listen - Are there any strange noises and what is the cause?
EU control
Periodic vehicle inspection is a regular, mandatory inspection of all vehicles. It is usually called PKK or EU control.
A bus must undergo an EU inspection every year, and this must be done at an approved workshop.
What is being checked?
- Road safety – The vehicle's lights, tires and brakes, as well as other things that are important for safety, are checked.
- Environment - The vehicle's emissions are checked, and whether the vehicle complies with environmental requirements.
Not approved
If the vehicle is not approved at the inspection, the vehicle must be presented and repaired within a deadline set by the Norwegian Road Administration. If you do not follow this, you will receive a reminder. If this is not followed up, the vehicle will be separated.
A bus must go in for an EU inspection every year!
4. Load calculation
4.0 Introduction
Chapter 4: Load calculation
In this chapter, we will do load calculations. It's not as difficult as you might think, and you need to be able to do it to get a class D driver's license.
Here we will go through:
- 4.1 Important concepts
- 4.2 Load calculation with two-axle bus
- 4.3 LTP
- 4.4 Load calculation with bogie
- 4.5 Securing and placement of payload
- 4.6 Control tasks
- 4.7 Practice tasks
Tips
- Take your time. This material can be a bit difficult, but if you follow the videos and explanations, it will be fine.
- Find stationery. Then you can write down numbers that you have to remember during the calculations.
- Use calculator. The calculations are not very difficult, but it is quickly done with sloppy mistakes.
- Print: It can be smart to print out the load calculation form and road lists, so you get used to doing load calculations on paper. You have to do that on the theory test. Many people find it unfamiliar to calculate on paper, if they have only calculated on a computer before.
- Learn all the weight concepts. Make sure you understand terms such as payload, total weight and axle load. If you don't fully understand what it is, the load calculation becomes much more difficult.
Load calculation form and road list!
Here is the load calculation form and road list.
What is load calculation?
Load calculation is about taking care of three things:
- That the vehicle does not weigh more than the vehicle can handle. The license plate states what the vehicle can withstand.
- That the vehicle does not weigh more than the road can handle. It is stated in the road lists what different roads in Norway can withstand.
- That the load is correctly placed on the bus, so that the axles are not overloaded.
4. Load calculation
4.1 Important terms (1/2)
Important terms in load calculation
Total weight and axle load
The total weight of the bus is the weight of everything: vehicle, driver, passengers and luggage. It is simply what the bus weighs if you drive on a scale.
In the same way that your weight is distributed on the two legs you stand on, the weight of the bus is distributed on the bus axles. How much each of the axles takes, or weighs, is called axle load.
Permitted axle load is how much each axle can take.
What the axle load of the front axle and rear axle is depends on where the weight is placed in the bus. If it is placed far back, the rear axle will take much of the weight. If it is far in front, the front axle will take much of the weight.
If you add up the axle loads, you get the total weight of the bus.
Net weight
The net weight of the bus is the weight of the bus, without driver, passengers or luggage. We often talk about the dead weight with the driver , and then 75 kg for the driver is added to the dead weight of the bus.
Current weight
Current weight is what the bus actually weighs, if you use a scale. People often talk about current total weight and current axle load.
The current weight of the bus is not shown in the vehicle registration card. The carriage card cannot know what the bus weighs at any given time.
4. Load calculation
4.1 Important terms (2/2)
Carriage card and road list
Both the vehicle license and the road list have a maximum permitted total weight and a maximum permitted axle load.
The carriage card
- Permitted total weight: how much your vehicle can weigh in total. Everything is included here: the weight of the vehicle, driver, passengers and luggage, and everything else you have in the car.
- Permitted axle load: how much axle load the front axle and rear axle can have, i.e. how the total weight can be distributed on the axles. In this vehicle license, the permissible axle load on the front axle is 8,000, and on the rear axle it is 11,500.
- Net weight with driver: the weight of the vehicle, + 75 kg for the driver. The vehicle in this vehicle license weighs 7,550 with driver, i.e. 7,550 – 75 = 7,475 without driver.
- Own weight axle: how the own weight of the vehicle is distributed on the axles. There is no driver here. The curb weight of 7475 is distributed here with 3300 on the front axle, and 4175 on the rear axle.
- Allowed payload including passengers: is how much payload the bus allows. Payload is passengers and luggage, and other things you have with you. You can also find this number by calculating the permissible total weight - curb weight with driver.
Road list
The road list shows what are the permitted weights on the road you will be driving on.
In the road list, you will find the road's use class. You will also find weight tables that show what are the permitted weights in different usage classes.
There are several road lists, but the most important is the national road list. It is called the pink road list, and is the only one we use on the theory exam. It is also the one you will use for the theory test at the National Road Administration.
4. Load calculation
4.2 Load calculation with two-axle bus
Load calculation form
The load calculation form is useful to use when calculating loads. A completed form shows the weight restrictions for both road and vehicle, and it shows how much weight the front axle and rear axle can take.
Load calculation two-axle bus
Now we will go through the load calculation with the load calculation form. Print out or draw a diagram on a piece of paper and follow the exercise.
Load calculation two-axle bus
We go through the exercise from the film:
We will drive the E6 through Nordland. Then we have to find the chapter for normal transport for Nordland, in the pink road list. There we can see that E6 from Trøndelag border to Troms and Finnmark border is bk 10/50, i.e. use class 10/50.
Then we check the permissible axle loads. In the vehicle license, the permissible axle loads are 7500 / 11500.
To find permitted axle loads in the road list, we have to scroll to table 1 axle load table.
Most front axles are free-wheeling wheels, i.e. an axle without operation. It's ours too, so the permissible axle load is 10 tonnes. Our rear axle is a drive axle, and has a permitted axle load of 11.5 tonnes.
Then there is an important thing we have to check: letter C below the table indicates that buses with air suspension can increase the permissible axle load. Do we have air suspension? We can check that in point 6 of the vehicle card. It says NO. We don't have air suspension, so we don't have to worry about the letter C this time.
We enter the permitted axle loads from the wagon card and table 1 into the load calculation form. Remember to convert tonnes to kg! Now our load calculation form looks like this:
Our front axle has permissible axle loads of 10,000 and 7,500 kg. We have to stay within the strictest limits, which are 7,500. We iron out 10,000. On the rear axle, the limit is anyway 11,500 kg, so we don't need to iron out anything.
We are then left with an axle load of 7500 / 11500. We know that both axle loads are permitted, according to both the vehicle license and road list. But we have to check what total weight we get with these axle loads, and whether it is allowed.
The total weight is 7500 + 11500 = 19000.
Is 19,000 within the permissible total weight? In the vehicle license, the permitted total weight is 19,000, so it is ok. In the road list, we have to look in table 2 vehicle weight table. It says that a bus with 2 axles can weigh 19,500 kg. 19,000 is therefore within.
Now that we know we can keep the axle loads, we can move on. Now we have to check how much of the permitted axle load we have to use on the vehicle's own weight, i.e. the tare weights. The tare weights are stated in the vehicle registration card.
We must enter the dead weights under the permitted axle loads. When we enter the weight of the front axle, we must add the weight of the driver, of 75 kg. Thus, the specific weight of the front axle is 4325 + 75 = 4400. The rear axle is 7450.
Once the specific weights have been entered, we can calculate the payload per axle. We do this by calculating the permissible axle load – own weight on the front axle and rear axle. The calculations are thus 7500 – 4400 = 3100 for the front axle, and 11500 – 7450 = 4050 for the rear axle.
Passengers and luggage
Passengers and luggage
Permitted payload is 3100 on the front axle, and 4050 on the rear axle. That will be 7150 in total.
In point 11 we see that the bus has 52 seats and zero standing places. The driver uses one of these seats. This means that the bus has room for 51 passengers.
With a payload of 7150, this means that each of the passengers can weigh 7150 / 51 = 140 kg with luggage.
4. Load calculation
4.3 LTP
LTP
In the load calculation form, we calculated that we should have axle loads of 7500 / 11500. To achieve that weight distribution, the center of gravity of our load must be placed on the LTP.
LTP is a point on the bus, which is calculated after the axle loads have been calculated.
Formula for LTP is:
We have calculated the front axle payload in the load calculation form. It is 3100. The wheelbase can be found in the vehicle license plate, and it is 7950 mm, i.e. 795 cm. Total payload is 7150.
The LTP for this planned shipment will therefore be 3100 x 795 / 7150 = 344.6.
This means that the LTP is 344 cm in front of the rear axle. The weight you will take with you in the bus should be centered around this point, so that the axle loads will be 7500 / 11500.
4. Load calculation
4.4 Load calculation with bogie
Load calculation with bogie
Now we will do another load calculation. But this time with a bus with one axle at the front, and a bogie at the back.
We will drive this bus, on the E39 Klett x E6 - Møre and Romsdal border, in Trøndelag county.
First, we check which use class the road has. We look up Trøndelag county - normal transport in the road list. It says that E39 Klett x E6 - Møre and Romsdal border is bk 10/50.
Then we check the permissible axle loads. Permitted axle loads in the vehicle license are 7500 / 19000.
Then we have to go to the road list and find table 1 axle load table. Our front axle is free-rolling and can weigh 10 tonnes. Our rear axle is a bogie, i.e. two axles with an axle distance of less than 1.8 m. This means that we have to look at the row for Load from two axles. And then we first need the axle distance of the bogie, from point 9 in the carriage card.
Wheelbase is 7420/1380. The first axle distance is the distance from the front axle to the front axle of the bogie. The second wheelbase is the distance from the bogie's front axle to the rear axle. Here we see that it is 1380, i.e. 1.38 metres.
In table 1 we see that a bogie with an axle distance of 1.3 can have an axle load of 18 tonnes. But here are two footnotes!
The only footnote we will concern ourselves with here is footnote 2. It allows us to increase the axle load to 19 tons if the bus has twin mounted wheels and air suspension. Do we have it? We have to check that in the vehicle registration card.
In point 6 we see that it says YES on air suspension. To check twin wheels, we can look in point 12. There it says T for twin wheels. This means that the permissible axle load is 19 tonnes.
It does not always say anything about twin wheels or single wheels in the vehicle license. But when you do tasks in load calculation, you will always get information about this, if it is necessary to solve the task. Also on the theory test at the National Road Administration.
And let's not forget the letter C! It allows us to increase the axle load if we have air suspension. And we have. We can increase the axle load by 1 tonne on the road in bk 8 and higher, so we can increase the front axle load from 10 to 11 tonnes.
Rear axle load, i.e. the bogie load, we can increase by 2 tonnes, but not beyond 19 tonnes on the bk10. We already have a bogie load of 19 tonnes, so we cannot increase any more.
Permitted axle loads are then 11,000 / 19,000 according to table 1. We enter this into the load calculation form, and cross out the highest. Then we are left with 7500 / 19000, which gives a total weight of 26500. Is that allowed?
In the vehicle license, the permitted total weight is 26,500, so that's ok.
To check the permitted total weight in the road list, we have to look up table 2. Here we see that a motor vehicle with 3 axles can weigh 26 tonnes. Footnote 6 states that motor vehicles with alternative fuel, e.g. electricity, can weigh even more. We use diesel, so we don't have to worry about that footnote.
Since the permissible total weight is only 26 tonnes, we have to reduce. We cannot weigh 26.5 tonnes. We reduce 500 kg on the rear axle, and get a new total weight of 26,000 kg.
Since we are now within all permitted axle loads and permitted total weight, we can subtract the dead weights and find the permitted payload. Remember to add 75 kg for the driver on the unladen weight of the front axle!
Permitted payload is 9300. The bus has 62 passenger places, so this gives 9300 / 62 = 150 kg per passenger.
LTP
When the bus has a bogie, it is the distance from the front axle to the center of the bogie that must be included in the formula for LTP.
To find the center of the bogie, divide the axle distance in the bogie by two. Our bus has a bogie with a wheelbase of 1380, so the center of the bogie is 1380 / 2 = 690 cm into the bogie.
We must add this distance to the distance from the front axle to the bogie, which is 7420. 7420 + 690 = 8110. Converted to cm, it becomes 811.
LTP for the bus will be 3000 x 811 / 9300 = 261 cm. LTP is therefore 261 cm in front of the center of the bogie.
4. Load calculation
4.5 Securing and placement of payload
Securing cargo and passengers
When the bus accelerates, turns and brakes, cargo and passengers are exposed to motion forces. These forces can cause passengers to fall, and luggage to overturn, fly away or fall from the hat rack. In addition to driving carefully, you must ensure that:
- the passengers are secured, with seat belts or by you being careful and following along
- the luggage is placed so that it does not pose a danger to the passengers, and so that it distributes its weight evenly in the bus
The passengers
Most passengers are able to take care of their own safety, as long as you do what is in your power: drive comfortably and guide the passengers when needed. Nevertheless, you must always be alert and follow what is going on.
Belt
In buses that have seat belts, passengers must wear them. It is mandatory. Anyone over the age of 15 is responsible for this themselves, but you should provide guidance if needed. You are responsible for passengers under the age of 15 wearing seat belts.
It is mainly buses in classes 2 and 3 that have seat belts.
Standing
Many buses have registered standing places. This requires extra consideration. If the bus does not have standing spaces, standing is not permitted. And then you have to make sure that the passengers sit in their seats.
Passengers with special needs
Wheelchair users, prams or other passengers with slightly special needs must also be taken care of. Some buses have equipment that the passengers know and can operate on their own - but you must follow along and assist if necessary.
The luggage
The luggage must be placed so that it stands safely and stably, and so that it is not damaged. It must distribute its weight sensibly on the axles, and it must not be a danger to passengers.
Front axle and rear axle
In the load calculation form, we calculated the permissible load on the front axle and the rear axle. The bus is designed so that the weight is distributed sensibly, so you don't have to weigh each piece of luggage or place each passenger. But you must be aware that the placement of cargo and passengers affects the axle load on the bus, and thus also the bus's driving characteristics.
20% on steering wheels
At least 20% of the bus's total weight must rest on the steering wheels.
This means that a bus with a total weight of 19 tonnes must have 19 x 0.20 = 3.8 tonnes or more on steering wheels. You also don't need to count on this when you accept passengers and luggage, because it takes a lot to get under 20% of the total weight on the front axle. It will only happen in extreme situations. But you must know that it is a requirement!
If the load is placed in the middle between the axles, the payload is evenly distributed between the axles.
If the load is placed on top of one of the axles, that axle gets all the payload.
4. Load calculation
4.7 Practice tasks (1/9)
Practice tasks
We end this chapter with practice exercises in load calculation, so that you can practice what you have learned.
4. Load calculation
4.7 Practice tasks (2/9)
Task 1
Use the wagon card as a starting point, fill in the values in a load calculation form and answer the questions.
You must not use a road list in this assignment.
Questions
Summary for task 1
4. Load calculation
4.7 Practice tasks (3/9)
Task 2
You will drive this bus on the road in bk 10. Use the load calculation form and tables from the road list, and answer the questions.
Questions
Summary for task 2
Permitted axle load!
Letter ci table 1 allows a bus to increase its axle load by 1 tonne on a single axle, and 2 tonnes for a bogie. But this requires the bus to have air suspension. Our bus doesn't have it, so we can't increase the axle load. Permitted axle load according to table i was thus 10,000 / 16,000.
4. Load calculation
4.7 Practice tasks (4/9)
Task 3
You will drive this bus on the E18 through Vestfold and Telemark counties, from the Agder border to the Viken border.
The front axle must be fully utilized. Use the wagon card, road lists and load calculation form and answer the questions.
Questions
Summary for task 3
Explanation!
Use class: E18 through Vestfold and Telemark county is bk 10-50. You can see that in the pink road list.
Table 1: Letter ci in table 1 allows buses with air suspension to increase the axle loads compared to what is stated in the table. We thus increase the front axle from 10,000 to 11,000. We cannot increase the rear axle, because the letter c does not allow you to increase beyond 19,000 on the road in bk 10.
Bogie load of 18,500: Permitted axle load according to the road was 11,000/19,000, and according to the vehicle license it was 7,500/19,000. After finishing the highest, we are left with axle loads of 7500/19000. Altogether, there will be 26,500 kg, which is more than the permitted total weight of 26,000. We must reduce by 500 kg. As the front axle must be fully utilized, we reduce the rear axle. It thus gets an axle load of 18,500 kg.
4. Load calculation
4.7 Practice tasks (5/9)
Task 4
Now we will drive this bus on the way in bk 8-32. The front axle must be fully utilized.
Use the wagon card, the tables from the road list and the load calculation form and answer the questions.
Questions
Summary for task 4
Explanation
Letter c: Permitted axle load on free axle is actually 8,000 kg on the road in bk 8-32. But letter c allows us to increase to 9,000 kg, since the bus has air suspension. The bogie load can be increased by 2 tonnes, i.e. from 12,000 kg to 14,000 kg.
Reduce: When we iron out the highest axle loads, we end up with 7500/14000 kg. It will be 21,500 kg, which is 1,500 kg more than the permitted total weight. We have to reduce by 1500 kg. The front axle must be fully utilized, so we reduce the rear axle from 14,000 to 12,500.
4. Load calculation
4.7 Practice tasks (6/9)
Exercise 5
We are now switching to a two-axle bus. You must drive national highway 136 in Innlandet county, from Møre and Romstal border to Dombås.
Use the road list, load calculation form and wagon card and answer the questions.
Questions
Summary for task 5
4. Load calculation
4.7 Practice tasks (7/9)
Exercise 6
You will drive this three-axle bus on roads with use class 6-28, with a permitted trailer length of 19.5 metres.
Use the load calculation form and tables from the pink road list, and answer the questions.
Summary for task 6
4. Load calculation
4.7 Practice tasks (8/9)
Exercise 7
Now we will calculate the load on the articulated bus. Most articulated buses have one drive shaft, which is located at the very back. The front and center axles are free. Which axle is the drive axle is often stated in item 15 of the vehicle registration card.
The load calculation is done in the same way as on other buses, but due to an extra axle, the load calculation table has an extra column.
You must drive on bk 10-50, with a length restriction of 19.5 metres. We will make full use of the front axle and rear axle.
Questions
Conclusion
4. Load calculation
4.7 Practice tasks (9/9)
Exercise 8
We are taking a new articulated bus. You must drive on a road with use class 8/32.
Complete the load calculation form and answer the questions.
Questions
Conclusion
After crossing out the highest axle loads, we get permissible axle loads of 7500/9000/9000. It will be 25,500 kg, i.e. 1,500 more than 24,000, which is the permitted weight according to table 2. Therefore, we have removed 1,500 from the middle axle.
5. Service
5.0 Introduction
Chapter 5: Service
All professional drivers must provide service. For you who will be driving passenger transport, this service will be a lot about meeting other people, namely the passengers. This places special demands on service.
In this chapter we will look at:
- 5.1 Trust, security and comfort
- 5.2 User groups
- 5.3 Peripheral service
- 5.4 Considerate driving
- 5.5 Control tasks
5. Service
5.1 Trust, security and comfort
The passengers' experience
The passengers buy a service: they must get from A to B, within the expected time.
In addition to that, they have an expectation that the transport they pay for should be safe and as comfortable as possible. This is an important part of the service the bus company must provide, and thus an important part of your job.
Trust
When you drive a bus, you are responsible for transporting a lot of people. It is important that they have confidence in you, so that they feel confident that you will transport them properly and efficiently. Trust creates security.
Clean and nice clothes
If you look proper, the passengers will have more confidence in you. That's why most bus drivers wear uniforms. You must make sure that you and your clothes are clean and neat, and that you groom yourself so that you look proper.
Be nice
You can also create trust by being pleasant and smiling at the passengers.
If you experience unwanted behavior from any of the passengers, you must speak up in a polite and firm manner. There is no point in becoming an angry bus driver - it does not build trust.
Comfort
Passengers expect the journey to be as comfortable as possible. It must be an ok temperature, clean and tidy, and reasonable lighting. In addition, driving must be comfortable. You must drive calmly and calmly.
Avoid sudden braking, rapid acceleration or turning at high speed. If you have a full bus with standing passengers, this is extra important. The passengers do not follow your driving, so any sudden movement will come unexpectedly!
Challenges
Sometimes it can seem almost impossible to give passengers a comfortable ride.
If the bus is overcrowded, comfort is reduced, and at the same time it becomes more difficult for you to keep up with the passengers' needs. And if there is rush hour traffic or difficult driving, you quickly have to spend all your time maneuvering in the chaotic traffic.
In such situations, it is important to keep calm, continue to drive comfortably without becoming aggressive. You can also provide passengers with information about special circumstances. Then at least you don't make the situation worse!
5. Service
5.2 User groups
User groups
All buses must be adapted to different user groups, i.e. different types of users, with different needs. Many user groups require extra consideration from you as a bus driver.
User groups you will certainly come across, and which you must pay extra attention to, are:
- Older
- Wheelchair users
- People with prams
- Children and young people under the age of 15
Older
Many older people take the bus, both for daily errands and when they are on holiday. Many of them no longer drive. This is therefore a user group you will meet often.
Most city buses have separate seats for the elderly. These are close to the door, and at the same floor level as the door. They can also have their own door opener buttons, which make the door stay open longer.
If you see an elderly person getting on the bus, you must pay attention. You should not start driving until you see that the elderly person has sat down.
Most buses have separate seats for the elderly.
Wheelchair users
Unfortunately, many buses are not adapted for wheelchair users. But if you drive a bus that is, you must be prepared to help.
Ramp
Many buses, especially city buses, have wheelchair ramps to enable wheelchair users to get on the bus. It is your responsibility to set up the ramp and ensure that it is used safely and correctly.
Wheelchair ramp in bus class 1.
Elevator
Some buses in class 2 and 3 have a lift. They are a bit more demanding to use, but you will receive training in this if necessary. The lift gets the wheelchair user onto the bus.
Attach
The wheelchair must be secured in all four corners. The attachment must be in the wheelchair's frame construction, not in wheels or other looser parts. The wheelchair user must wear a belt that is fastened in the bus.
In the case of an electric wheelchair, the harness in the wheelchair must be used.
Wheelchair securing in bus class 1.
Pram
People with prams do not require as much help as people with disabilities. But you still have to pay attention.
If you drive a class 1 or 2 bus, you probably don't need to help. These buses are low, and easy to get into. If a ramp or lifting assistance is needed, you must help with it. It is also you who must decide whether there is room for a pram or not.
If you are to have a pram on a class 3 bus, you as the bus driver must decide where the pram will be placed. It is common to place it in the trunk. Then the child should sit in a child seat.
Children and young people under the age of 15
Children can be restless and bored when driving a bus. For long-distance transport, you should include many short breaks, instead of one long one, if you can.
In a bus without standing seats, you must follow along, and make sure that no one runs around in the aisle. You must also ensure that they are properly secured. As a bus driver, you are responsible for ensuring that children under the age of 15 are secured with a seat belt, if the bus has one.
5. Service
5.3 Peripheral service
Peripheral service
The service the passenger buys is to be transported from A to B. That is the main service that you must offer. Passengers expect the bus company to manage this main service. That is the minimum requirement for the customer.
But the bus company can also provide a number of things that the passenger does not expect to the same extent. In other words, additional services during transport. This is called peripheral service.
It is in this peripheral service that extra satisfied customers are created. Examples of such services are:
Mobile charger
Many new buses have a USB outlet, where passengers can charge their mobile phones.
Seating facilities
For long-distance transport, it is useful to have a light, a table and a simple temperature setting. Some buses have televisions, so they can show movies.
Light and easy temperature adjustment are good on long trips.
Information
Passengers have a right to information, regardless. But if the information is presented simply and easily, it can be perceived as a good peripheral service. For example, the bus can be equipped with screens that provide up-to-date information about where the bus is, or you can offer route information in an app.
Acquiring and storing tickets should also be easy, and this can also be done via the app.
Clean and neat bus
Most people probably expect the bus to be quite tidy. But here you can still provide a lot of extra service. You can make sure that the bus is freshly washed inside and out, that it smells good, that the bins are empty and that the internal windows are clean.
Punctuality
The passenger expects the bus to leave at approximately the right time, but they must also tolerate small delays. Delays are very common in all public transport, especially in the big cities.
A bus company can choose to use extra resources on good punctuality, and get extra satisfied customers. Most people accept that the bus is 3 minutes late - but never being late is a very good service.
Good punctuality over time results in satisfied passengers.
5. Service
5.4 Considerate driving
Considerate driving
You also provide service when you drive the bus. There are many small steps you can take that will give passengers a good experience.
High speed road
Many buses run on the high-speed road.
High speed can be frightening for many, and you have to take that into account. You must transport your passengers in accordance with the current legislation - and that means you must stay within the speed limits. And if the road is bad, you have to drive even slower.
You should also keep a good distance to the traffic ahead. Even if you yourself have full control, it can be frightening for the passengers if you are close to them. Heavy vehicles must also be 5-6 seconds behind the vehicle in front.
Acceleration and braking
It is during acceleration and braking that the passengers feel the forces of movement in the bus best. Falling accidents in buses during braking and acceleration are quite common.
You can limit this by driving gently, and keeping an eye on the mirrors, so that you keep an overview of the condition of the passengers. This applies especially if you drive a full bus with many standing passengers.
Getting off and getting on
When entering a stop, you must slow down in good time. It can be frightening for those waiting for the bus if you drive too fast, and they may think you intend to drive past. Turn on your turn signals when you approach.
Also watch your overhang when turning in. It can go over the curb, and those waiting for the bus may not be prepared for that. Park the bus close to the curb so that passengers can enter easily.
Remember that it can be slippery in the bus pocket, even if it is not slippery on the road.
Public face!
It's not just the passengers you have to take into account - you have to take all traffic into account. Your bus is a big advertising sign for the bus company, and you represent the company you work for. You have to think about that all the time.
6. Legislation and fees
6.0 Introduction
Chapter 6: Legislation and fees
There are many laws and regulations that are relevant to you who will be driving a bus. Here we will look at:
- 6.1 The driver's license
- 6.2 Duties
- 6.3 The transport statutes
- 6.4 Liability for vehicle and cargo
- 6.5 Fees, license and insurance
- 6.6 Public reactions
- 6.7 Signs
- 6.8 Control tasks
Relevant laws and regulations
In this chapter, we will review the most important of the laws and regulations that are relevant to heavy vehicles:
The Road Traffic Act
The driving license regulations
The Road Freight Act
The Tax Agency's table for weighted annual tax
It is not intended that you should write laws, but you can use the links if you are particularly interested, or if you want to check a special case.
6. Legislation and fees
6.1 The driver's license
Right to drive a bus
The driver's license regulations stipulate that a class D driver's license gives the right to drive:
- Motor vehicle approved for the transport of more than 8 passengers in addition to the driver.
- Wagon train consisting of a motor vehicle covered by the point above and a trailer with a permissible total weight of no more than 750 kg.
- Articulated bus
Who can get a driving license class D?
You must have reached the age of 24, or have completed or started approved professional driver training.
You must be in sufficiently good health: you must have good enough vision, good enough hearing and agility and you cannot have drug problems or behavioral disorders. A health certificate is supplied with the driver's license application.
Professional driver!
Driving license class D does not entitle you to work as a bus driver. You must take professional driver training first.
The validity of the driver's license
The driving license is valid for 5 years. The validity may be shorter, if:
- it is necessary due to health reasons.
- you have not documented having completed smooth driving courses or track safety courses when you get your driver's licence. The validity is then set to one year. If you submit documentation of completed courses afterwards, you can get validity for 5 years.
- you are between 66 and 71 years old. In that case, the validity is set anyway to the day before you turn 71. From the age of 71 and above, the driver's license is valid for one year.
The driving license must be renewed before the validity period is over - otherwise you will be without a driving licence. When renewing, you must deliver a health certificate to the traffic station. If it has been more than a year since your driving license expired, you must take a new driving license.
6. Legislation and fees
6.2 Duties
§ 3 Basic rules for traffic
Section 3 of the Road Traffic Act is called basic rules for traffic. It is like this:
Everyone must travel with consideration and be alert and careful so that no danger can arise or damage be caused and so that other traffic is not unnecessarily obstructed or disturbed.
Road users must also show consideration for those who live or stay by the road.
This is a completely general rule, which applies to everyone who travels where there is traffic. Many people are punished for violating this section.
Attentive, considerate and cautious
The point of the law is that you must be alert, considerate and careful when you are in traffic.
Alertness means that you are aware and prepared, so that you can react quickly to sudden events. Considerate means that you must show consideration for other road users, regardless of the obligation to give way and other traffic rules. Careful means that you should be careful and drive safely.
You must be fit to drive
The Road Traffic Act states:
No one must drive or attempt to drive a vehicle when he is in such a state that he cannot be considered fit to drive safely, whether this is due to his being under the influence of alcohol or other intoxicating or narcotic substances, or that he is ill, weakened, tired or fatigued, or due to other circumstances.
The condition
This law states that you must be fit to drive. That means you have to be in good shape. You can't be intoxicated, or so tired or sick that you can't keep up.
Intoxication
The Road Traffic Act stipulates that the driver of a motor vehicle cannot be under the influence of alcohol or other drugs.
You must also abstain from alcohol for 6 hours after you have parked, if you have been involved in an accident or if you have reason to believe that your drive may be investigated by the authorities.
Obligatory abstinence
The Road Traffic Act also has separate provisions for professional drivers and intoxication. They decide that you do not enjoy alcohol during duty hours, or in the last 8 hours before duty hours. Duty time is the time you are at work - i.e. the time when you drive or may be asked to drive or do other work.
Refrain from alcohol:
- 8 hours before you go to work
- When you are at work
- 6 hours after driving you think needs to be investigated.
Seat belt
The requirements for seat belts in buses only apply to buses class 2 and 3. They are contained in the regulations on the use of seat belts.
Belt requirements for buses class 2 and 3:
- Passengers who are seated and have a seatbelt available must wear a seatbelt
- Children under the age of 3 must use additional safety equipment, where it is available
- Passengers must be informed that they must wear seat belts while driving. This can be done with signs
Exception
These requirements do not apply when driving in a garage, car park, petrol station or other similar restricted area, or if you have a medical certificate stating that you cannot wear a seat belt. Cars that have to stop frequently, such as post trucks or garbage trucks, also do not need belts. Companions during practice driving do not need a seat belt if it prevents them from reaching the steering wheel.
Children under 15 years of age
As a bus driver, you are responsible for passengers under the age of 15 wearing seat belts where required.
Duties in the event of an accident
The Road Traffic Act stipulates that you have duties in the event of a traffic accident:
Anyone who, with or without fault, is involved in a traffic accident must immediately stop and help injured persons and animals, and otherwise participate in the measures that give rise to the accident.
This duty also has, if necessary, others who are nearby or who come to the place.
You have a duty to help
You must help people and animals who have been in an accident, or who need help. If you fail to help, you could lose your driver's license forever.
Furthermore, the law requires that you stay at the scene of the accident until you get the police's permission to leave, and that you help ensure that technical traces are not removed. You are also obliged to identify yourself to the police on site.
Professional driver!
Professional drivers have a special duty to help.
Special speed regulations
The Road Traffic Act contains special provisions on driving speed, which are special speed limits for certain types of vehicles.
It states that motor vehicles with a permissible total weight of more than 3,500 kg, i.e. buses, cannot drive faster than 80 km/h. Class 3 buses without a trailer can, however, travel at up to 100 km/h.
6. Legislation and fees
6.3 The transport statutes
The statutes of carriage
The National Association of Transport Companies has drawn up something called the transport regulations for scheduled buses.
There are regulations that both passengers and the bus company must follow, which deal with things such as luggage, pets, smoking, delays and damage. When you buy a bus ticket, you enter into an agreement with the bus company that the transport regulations must be followed.
The vast majority of bus companies use these regulations, and reproduce them on their websites, timetables or elsewhere. They are approved by the Ministry of Transport.
Routes have their travel conditions on their website.
The most important statutes
Here are the most important provisions in the transport statutes:
- Getting off and getting on must normally take place at specific stops
- Passengers can bring hand luggage of up to 20 kg on their ticket
- The purchase, sale and price of tickets must take place according to rules approved by the authorities
- Travelers must follow specific safety rules, use seat belts where available, and be considerate of other travelers
- Disturbing the driver while driving is not permitted
- Drugs and smoking are prohibited on the bus
- The driver can refuse entry to people if they are drunk, intoxicated and will be an inconvenience to other travellers
- If a traveler damages or destroys something on the bus, intentionally or through gross negligence, the damage must be compensated by the traveler
- Bicycles and prams can be taken if there is space
- The driver can refuse access to live animals
- The bus company is not responsible for goods that are taken free of charge, i.e. without payment, unless the damage is caused by gross negligence
- In the event of damage to luggage for which freight has been paid, the bus company must pay compensation if the damage is not caused by the traveller
- The bus company must inform travelers about settings, delays and other things that affect the passengers. Passengers must expect minor delays. If transport has to be interrupted, the bus company must provide further transport for the travellers.
6. Legislation and fees
6.4 Liability for vehicle and load
Decent and regulatory condition
The Road Traffic Act stipulates that the vehicle must be safe and in regulatory condition.
Regulatory condition means that the vehicle is in good technical condition. That is, that everything works and is as it should be. Good condition means that the vehicle and load are safe to drive.
There is a difference between safe and legal: a bus with a broken headlight is not in good condition, but it can still be safe to drive - if it is daytime and there are good light conditions where you will be driving. If it is dark, or visibility is poor, it is not safe.
The driver must assess for himself whether the vehicle is in a safe condition. If it is not, it is forbidden to drive.
Driver's and owner's responsibility
The owner is responsible for ensuring that the vehicle is in safe and legal condition. But when the vehicle is handed over to the driver, it is the driver who is responsible.
Fee for nuisance
The authorities can charge a fee for overloading on single axles and total weight. The fee increases with the number of kg of excess weight, and it becomes even higher if the vehicle has been taken with excess weight before. It is the owner who must pay the fee.
If someone other than the owner has taken over the right to use the vehicle, for example via leasing, it is the person with the right to use the vehicle who must pay the fee. This is often called the carrier.
If the overload is dangerous, the driver can be fined for reckless driving. If it is particularly serious, the driver may lose his driving licence.
Prohibition on the use of vehicles
The Road Traffic Act states that the police can prohibit the use of a vehicle, if necessary. There are many possible reasons for a ban, and some of them are:
- The motor vehicle is not registered
- The motor vehicle is refused to be handed over for inspection
- The vehicle is not in good condition and the load is not properly secured
- The vehicle's wheels do not have sufficient traction
- The vehicle has not been weighed in accordance with the requirements of the authorities, or if the charge for overloading has not been paid
- Safety or environmental changes have been made to the vehicle by a non-approved workshop
- Rules for axle load, total weight or the placement of loads have been broken
- The vehicle has been driven irresponsibly
- The rules for driving and rest time have not been observed
How long the ban lasts varies from case to case. The ban applies to the use of one particular vehicle.
Responsibility for luggage
The carriage regulations have provisions for who is responsible for the luggage. The provisions may vary slightly between the bus companies. The Motor Vehicle Liability Act and the Road Freight Agreements Act also regulate the allocation of responsibility for transport.
Common rules for liability are:
- The bus company is not responsible for loss of or damage to luggage caused by other passengers.
- Passengers must ensure that they get the correct luggage when they leave the bus.
- The bus company is not responsible for loss of or damage to luggage that passengers take with them free of charge, unless the bus company has shown gross negligence.
- When transporting goods against payment, the bus company is responsible for loss or damage from the time the goods are in the bus until they are delivered. The bus company is not responsible if the goods are packed improperly or if the loss or damage is caused by the person who prepared the goods.
- When the bus company is liable for compensation, the amount of the compensation must follow the Act on Road Freight Agreements.
6. Legislation and fees
6.5 Fees, license and insurance (1/2)
Charges
Taxes on vehicles are part of Norway's tax and excise system. Many of the expenses related to heavy vehicles are taxes.
- Annual weight tax is the annual tax for heavy vehicles, which must be paid twice a year. How much you have to pay depends on weight, number of axles and suspension system.
- Environmentally differentiated tax applies to diesel-powered vehicles with a weight of 7,500 kg and above. The fee is adjusted according to the exhaust gas requirement level.
- The fuel taxes are paid through the purchase of fuel, as an addition to the price. The fees must help cover costs related to pollution.
Fuel pollutes. That is why we have a tax on fuel.
Reduce the annual fee
The weight-year tax is determined by how much a vehicle wears on the road. Therefore, the annual weight tax is determined by the vehicle's permissible total weight, number of axles and type of suspension. For example, air suspension results in a reduced weight-year tax, because vehicles that have it struggle less on the road.
If you never use the vehicle's permitted total weight, you can have the annual weight tax reduced. If the permitted total weight is 30 tonnes, and you do not intend to use this permitted weight, there is no point in having a permitted weight of 30 tonnes. Then you can have it reduced to what you need, and get a lower fee.
The change is made through the Norwegian Public Roads Administration, and you will receive a new vehicle license with a reduced tax basis. If you lower the permitted total weight from 30 to, for example, 20 tonnes, and receive annual weight tax after this, you cannot of course weigh more than 20 tonnes. If you do so, the permitted total weight will be set back up to 30 tonnes, and you cannot lower it again.
Lion
If you are going to drive a bus for a fee, you need a licence. For buses, there is a coach license and a scheduled bus license. To get a licence, you need:
- relevant professional qualifications
- good enough finances to run the business responsibly
- good conduct
A license is associated with a specific vehicle, and must be kept in the vehicle, available for inspection. The trolleybus license is a so-called community licence. This means that it applies throughout the EU and EEA.
It is usually the employer who owns the bus and obtains the licence.
Remuneration!
In the regulations, payment is called consideration. Driving a bus for remuneration therefore means driving a bus for payment.
Driver's license
If you are going to drive passenger transport for payment, you must also have a ticket. You apply for a driving ticket to the police.
To get a ticket you must...
- have reached the age of 20, and be younger than 75 years
- be of good character
- have lived in Norway for more than 4 years. Does not apply if you are from a country within the EEA.
- have a health certificate
You must have the driver's license in the vehicle, so you can show it at the inspection. The driving license lasts for 10 years.
6. Legislation and fees
6.5 Fees, license and insurance (2/2)
Insurance
Insurance is a large part of the expenses when driving a heavy vehicle, and there are many different types of insurance for vehicles and transport. There are a number of insurance schemes designed for buses with passengers.
Liability insurance and comprehensive insurance
The Motor Liability Act requires that anyone injured by a motor vehicle must receive compensation, regardless of fault.
Liability insurance, or traffic insurance as it is also called, must ensure this. All cars with registration plates must have liability insurance. Your liability insurance covers damage to other road users and vehicles, if you are to blame for the accident. It also covers you as the driver and any passengers. Liability insurance does not cover damage to your own vehicle.
Full comprehensive and partial comprehensive insurance covers damage to your own vehicle regardless of fault, but this insurance is voluntary. Partial comprehensive insurance covers, among other things, fire and theft, damage to buildings and property, and roadside assistance.
Full comprehensive insurance covers everything covered by partial comprehensive insurance, in addition to collision, downhill and overturning.
Insurance is wise.
Documentation in the event of a stop and collision
In order for responsibility to be distributed correctly in the event of a stop or collision, it is important to have documentation. The insurance companies need it to process the case.
Damage report form
In the event of a collision, you should write down the names and addresses of people who may have seen the accident, and take photographs with your mobile phone. You should photograph the surroundings and other things that can help in determining questions of guilt. In addition, you must fill in a damage report form. On the claim form, you can draw the accident situation and write down what happened. The damage report form should be available in the car, together with the telephone number for roadside assistance and car recovery. Most insurance companies cover this and offer a separate telephone number.
You must also call the transport company you are driving for. They can provide information about routines, contact an ambulance and initiate measures to transport the passengers.
Damage report form.
6. Legislation and fees
6.6 Public reactions
Public reactions
If you break the law or commit minor offences, you may get reactions from the authorities. Here we will look at:
- Fine
- Simplified presentation
- Fee
- Blocking period
- Loss of driver's license
Penalty and simplified notice
A fine is considered a punishment from the authorities. It is often used together with a prison sentence, and you are entitled to a trial before you are fined.
If you are caught at a speed check or similar, the police may ask if you accept a simplified summons. This means that you accept a fine without trial, and that you and the authorities make up then and there. You get the fine on a bill, and you can drive on.
If you do not agree, the case will be taken up in the judiciary, and it will be treated like other criminal cases. The vast majority accept a simplified submission.
It is common to offer a simplified sentence in minor cases, such as running a red light, illegal overtaking or speeding.
Speed control.
Fee
A fee is not a penalty. The fee you pay must in principle cover an expense you incur in one way or another.
It is common to receive a fee for minor matters, such as incorrect parking. You can also be charged for nuisance. If you don't pay the fee, the fee will be larger, and eventually the authorities can take a lien on your vehicle.
Fee for incorrect parking.
Blocking period
A suspension period is when the authorities refuse you to get a driving licence. If you drive a bus without having a class D driver's license, you can get a suspension period for a class D driver's license. This means that you cannot get a class D driver's license until the suspension period is over.
You can also get a suspension period when your driving license is revoked. Then you cannot get a new driver's license before the suspension period is over.
If you are caught for speeding with a motor vehicle in which you do not have a driver's license, and the speeding would have led to the confiscation of your driver's license if you had had a driver's license, then the suspension period will be at least as long as the driver's license had been revoked.
A suspension period prevents you from obtaining a driver's license.
Loss of driver's license
Loss of driving license usually occurs in connection with a court case and sentence, for more serious violations. If you lose your driving licence, you cannot drive any vehicle requiring a driving licence.
If you are caught twice in five years for exceeding the limit, which gives rise to the suspension of your driving licence, you can lose your driving license forever. You must also lose your driving license forever if you fail to help in a traffic accident for which you are at fault.
If you refuse a breathalyzer test or a blood test on suspicion of drink-driving, you can lose your driving license for two years. If you are punished for drink-driving, you lose it for one year.
Bus driver without a driver's license?
If you work as a bus driver, it is quite stupid to lose your driving licence. If it is your own fault that you have lost it, for example because you have drunk driving, there is a high chance that your employer will dismiss you. If you are self-employed, you can lose a lot of income during the period you are without a driving license - and if the confiscation is self-inflicted, it is not certain that you will get anything back on the insurance.
If you are very lucky, your employer will put you to other work until your driving license is back.
6. Legislation and fees
6.7 Signs (1/3)
Divorced
Here we will look at signs that are particularly important for you who drive a heavy vehicle. We will look at...
- prohibition sign
- direction sign
- underlined
Many new signs apply now that you have to drive a bus.
Prohibition sign - weight
Total weight limit for vehicles
The vehicle cannot have a current total weight that is higher than the weight indicated on the sign.
Axle load limit
Prohibited for vehicles with a current axle load of more than 3 tonnes. The sign also sets limits for the axle load of bogies and triple bogies, but then you have to multiply by 1.5 and 2. The permitted axle load for bogies is thus 3 x 1.5 = 4.5 tonnes. For a triple bogie, it is 3 x 2 = 6 tonnes.
Bogie load limit
Prohibited for vehicles with a bogie load of more than 10 tonnes.
Total weight limit
Prohibited for motor vehicles with more than two wheels, and with a permissible total weight greater than 3500 kg.
Prohibition sign - size
Width limit
Vehicles cannot be wider than specified. The same applies to any goods in the vehicle.
Height limit
Vehicles cannot be higher than specified. The same applies to any goods in the vehicle.
Length limit
Vehicles or wagon trains may not be longer than indicated. This also applies to any goods.
Prohibition signs - rules for certain vehicles
Prohibited for the transport of dangerous goods
Vehicles carrying dangerous goods cannot drive here.
Prohibition sign - stop
Stop for stated purpose
The sign requires you to stop for what is indicated on the sign. In this example, the driver must stop for a check.
Stop for customs
The vehicle must stop for customs clearance or for applicable customs regulations.
6. Legislation and fees
6.7 Signs (2/3)
Road sign
Detour route for large vehicles
This sign applies to heavy vehicles, both buses and trucks. The sign is used together with other signs.
Detour for specific vehicle groups
Here you see the sign placed on a road sign. The sign shows a detour for vehicles over 3.5 meters high.
Route for the transport of dangerous goods
This sign shows a separate route for the transport of dangerous goods.
Other detour routes
In the picture you see six different signs, all of which are called other detour routes. These are used when a place has many detours to different destinations, for example during major roadworks. At the start of the detours, you will be told which signs lead where.
6. Legislation and fees
6.7 Signs (3/3)
Undersigned
Sub-signs stand below other signs.
This sub-sign shows that the main sign, i.e. the sign below it, applies to buses.
Sub-sign for danger sign
Degree of ascent
This sign is below the danger sign that warns of a steep hill, and shows that the hill has a 10% gradient.
It can be slow going uphill by bus, so it's smart to increase your speed before the hill. If you keep a good distance to the driver in front, you have room for such speed increases.
Degree of ascent
This sign warns of a steep hill, and encourages you to have a low gear. To prevent the service brake from getting hot and failing, you should brake on the gear, or with other auxiliary brakes.
Truly free road width
The sign is usually put up where the road is narrower than it looks, or narrower than what is standard. The sign also refers to the fact that the movement space above the road is narrow, for example due to a rock face.
7. Driving and rest time
7.0 Introduction
Chapter 7: Driving and rest time
Accidents involving heavier vehicles can have serious consequences. It is therefore important that the drivers are rested when they are at work, and able to make good decisions. To ensure this, there are international regulations that determine how much you can drive. This is called the driving and rest time regulations.
In this chapter we will look at:
- 7.1 Regulation of working hours
- 7.2 Driving time, working time and rest time
- 7.3 Daily rest and weekly rest
- 7.4 Tachograph
- 7.5 Control tasks
7. Driving and rest time
7.1 Regulation of working hours
To whom do the regulations apply?
The driving and rest time provisions apply to everyone who drives passenger transport on the road with a vehicle designed to transport more than nine people including the driver. Buses on routes of less than 50 km are exempt. But they must comply with the Working Environment Act.
The Working Environment Act applies to everyone who drives a bus.
The laws protect the driver
These laws are supposed to protect drivers from poor working conditions. They ensure that drivers get enough breaks and that the working day is as safe as possible. They are there to protect you, not to restrict your freedom.
Exemptions from the driving and rest time provisions
Many groups of professional drivers are exempt from the driving and rest time regulations. But they are still covered by the Working Environment Act.
EU/EEA:
- Bus on a route where the route is no longer than 50 km.
- Vehicles used in disaster relief, rescue operations or non-commercial humanitarian aid
- Special vehicles for medical purposes
- Vehicles that help in a car breakdown, operating within a radius of 100 km from the place of stay
- Vehicles that are being test driven in connection with technical improvements or maintenance, and new or converted vehicles that have not yet been put into service
- Vehicles or combinations of vehicles in which the maximum permissible weight does not exceed 7.5 tonnes, which are used for the transport of goods of a non-commercial nature
Norway:
- Vehicles owned or hired without a driver by public authorities to carry out road transport that does not compete with private transport companies
- Vehicles that are used or rented without a driver by agricultural, horticultural, forestry, farming or fishing enterprises for the transport of goods related to the enterprises' own business activities within a radius of 100 km from the place of stay
- Vehicles that use alternative, environmentally friendly fuel, and drive within a radius of 100 km from the place of stay, can weigh up to 4.25 tonnes before the driving and rest time regulations apply
- Vehicles used for traffic training and driving tests with a view to obtaining a driving license or professional diploma, as long as the vehicles are not used for commercial transport
- Vehicles used in connection with sewage treatment, flood protection, water, gas and electricity supply, maintenance and supervision of roads, collection and removal of household waste, telegraph and telephone service, radio and television broadcasting and bearing of radio or television transmitters or receivers
Vehicles used for traffic training are exempt from the driving and rest time regulations.
7. Driving and rest time
7.2 Driving time, working time and rest time
Driving time, working time and rest time
Both the Working Environment Act and the driving and rest time regulations regulate your working hours. But the driving and rest time regulations also regulate how much you drive.
Your driving time is the time you sit and drive the bus. Working time is described in the regulations on working time in road transport, as "the time the employee is at the workplace and is at the disposal of the employer". Your working time is therefore the time you are at work, regardless of whether you drive a bus or do other things.
When you are not at work, you have rest time , i.e. free time. Then you cannot do other paid work. The rest you have between two working days is called 24-hour rest. You must also have a slightly longer rest once a week, and it is called weekly rest.
Timeline driving and rest time
When showing the schedule for drivers, it is common to insert the activities into a timeline with different color codes. Each timeline shows activities over a 24-hour period.
Driving and breaks
The basic break rule states that you must take a 45 minute break after driving for 4 hours and 30 minutes, if you are going to drive more.
You can split the break into a 15-minute break and a 30-minute break. The 15-minute break must be taken first, and it can be taken at any time during the driving period. The 30-minute break must be taken at the end of the driving period.
The basic break rule only requires you to take a break if you want to drive more. If you are not going to drive any more, but do other work, you can start other work immediately after the driving period, without taking a break. Then you can do other work until you have a total working time of 6 hours. In that case, the Working Environment Act requires you to take a break. This break must last at least 30 minutes if your working day is 6-9 hours long, and at least 45 minutes if your working day is more than 9 hours long.
Daily driving time
Daily driving time is all the driving time you have had between two 24-hour rest periods, or between a 24-hour rest period and a weekly rest period. Daily driving time should not normally exceed 9 hours, but can be extended to 10 hours up to twice a week.
Weekly driving time
Weekly driving time is everything you drive in one week. A week is Monday 00:00 - Sunday 24:00.
The total driving time during a week must not be more than 56 hours. The driving time for two consecutive weeks must not exceed 90 hours in total.
Remember!
Sometimes you cannot drive as much as the driving and rest time regulations allow, because it would be in breach of other working time laws.
Driving time
7. Driving and rest time
7.3 Daily rest and weekly rest
24-hour rest
Rest time is an uninterrupted period that the driver can freely use . But it must be used for leisure, not work. And for it to be considered a rest period, it must be long enough.
Normal 24-hour rest
Usually, the daily rest period is 11 consecutive hours. This is normal 24-hour rest.
Normal daily rest can be divided into a period of at least 3 hours, followed by a period of at least 9 hours.
During the first 24 hours after a rest, you must have another rest period of 11 hours. If you have not completed more than 9 hours of the rest period within this 24-hour period, the rest period is considered reduced daily rest.
Reduced daily rest
A reduced daily rest is a rest of at least 9 hours, but less than 11 hours. A maximum of three times between two weekly rests you can have a reduced 24-hour rest.
Ferry!
Normal 24-hour rest can be interrupted twice in connection with getting on and off a train or ferry. The interruptions can total a maximum of 1 hour. During a normal 24-hour rest on a ferry, the driver must have a berth or berth. Reduced daily rest cannot be interrupted!
24-hour rest
Weekly rest
A normal weekly rest is at least 45 hours. A maximum of six 24-hour periods after the previous weekly rest has ended, you must have a new weekly rest.
Within two weeks, you must have taken at least two normal weekly rests, or one normal weekly rest and one reduced weekly rest.
A reduced weekly rest period is at least 24 hours. If you take a reduced weekly rest, you must make up the missing hours later. That is to say: if you take a reduced weekly rest of 35 hours, you are missing 10 hours. You must make up for them together, together with another rest of at least 9 hours, no later than the end of the third week following the week with a reduced weekly rest.
Weekly rest
7. Driving and rest time
7.4 Tachograph
Tachograph
If you don't drive on watch lists, there is a tachograph that records your driving and rest time. It is an instrument installed in the bus. The tachograph records driving time automatically, and you can enter other work or rest yourself.
All drivers have a driver's card, which you insert into the tachograph. All activity recorded by the tachograph is registered on the driver's card.
The tachograph must be checked at an authorized workshop every two years.
Safe roads!
The tachograph must ensure that drivers get enough rest and do not drive for too long at a time.
This helps to ensure that there are fewer tired and dangerous drivers on the roads, and it ensures a level playing field for all the countries that are involved in the driving and rest time regulations.
Driver's license
If you are going to drive a car with a digital tachograph, you must have a driver's license.
The driver's license is personal and is issued by the Norwegian Road Administration. The card is valid for 5 years. All the information from the tachograph is stored in the card, and you must always have your driver's license with you.
If you lose your card, or if it stops working or is stolen, you must take a printout from the tachograph at the end of the day. You must sign the printout and include your name and the number of your driver's license or driver's license. The printouts must be shown in a control. In such cases, you must report the card as lost and order a new driver's card. If you have not lost the card, but have forgotten to take it with you, you cannot use printing as a registration method.
Analog tachograph
In older vehicles, there may be an analogue tachograph instead of a digital one. Therefore, you need to know how to operate it.
Analog tachograph.
Chart discs
A chart disk is valid for one day, i.e. a maximum of 24 hours. When the working day starts, you must fill in the disc with name, date, place, car registration number and mileage, before inserting it into the printer. Just as with a digital printer, you also have to make sure that the correct activity is recorded at all times. Driving is usually recorded automatically.
In a check, you must be able to show today's chart slice, in addition to the chart slices for the last 28 days. You must therefore save up and take these discs with you to work. If you have a driver's license, you must also bring the driver's license with you, even if you have not used it.
When you no longer need to carry the chart disks with you, they must be handed in to the employer, who will keep them for at least 12 months. Analog tachographs use the same activity symbols as digital tachographs.
Chart disc.
Tachograph
8. Planning of driving
8.0 Introduction
Chapter 8: Planning of driving
Here we will look at what things to take into account when planning a bus trip.
If you drive a long-distance tour bus, there is a lot you have to figure out: route selection, driving, terrain, breaks and food. If you drive a bus on a regular basis, in an area you are used to, it is a little easier - but you still have to make assessments in advance.
Here we will go through:
- 8.1 Before you go out for a drive
- 8.2 Environmentally friendly and economical driving
- 8.3 The industry's expectations and attitudes
- 8.4 Control tasks
8. Planning of driving
8.1 Before you go out for a drive
Plan a drive
There are many things you have to take into account in connection with a drive. If you have control over these, you are prepared when something expected or unexpected happens. Good planning also lays a good foundation for an economical and environmentally friendly drive.
Items to consider before a drive:
- Route. You must check height, length and weight restrictions, and consider road standards, traffic, environmentally friendly driving and weather. Here, for example, you can use vegkart.no.
- Consider the type of passengers you will be driving and their needs. Are they children, the elderly, tourists, commuters or perhaps a football team? Do they speak Norwegian, and are they used to driving a bus? Think about what needs they have, what mood they might be in, and how they feel.
- Plan how you will stay within the driving and rest time regulations. Where can you take a break? The passengers can use the break for food or toilet visits, if you plan correctly.
- Make sure you know the route, and that you have a plan to orient yourself along the way, if you become unsure.
- Check whether the vehicle is in a proper condition to receive passengers. Is it clean and pleasant, and is it in proper and regulatory condition?
There is much of this that you, as a bus driver, cannot decide, or have no control over. But you can familiarize yourself with these things, and reflect on what they require of you as a driver.
8. Planning of driving
8.2 Environmentally friendly and economical driving
Environmentally friendly driving
There are two things that particularly affect emissions from heavy vehicles: vehicle technology and driving style.
Euro 6
The EU has long set limits on how much emissions vehicles can have. The restrictions are gathered in something called a Euro standard, which becomes stricter and stricter as vehicle technology becomes more and more environmentally friendly. Today we have Euro 6, which are very environmentally friendly vehicles.
Figures from the Institute of Transport Economics show that pollution is still not decreasing, because the increase in heavy vehicle traffic is so great.
Fuel consumption
Low fuel consumption is beneficial for both the environment and your wallet, and you can influence this to a large extent. It turns out that consumption can vary by as much as 25% from driver to driver. So there is a lot to gain from optimizing your driving style. You can also choose routes that make it easier to drive environmentally friendly.
Trip computer
Many modern vehicles have on-board computers that provide feedback on diesel consumption and other things. This is a good tool for a driver who wants to have good and environmentally friendly driving routines. Then you can constantly monitor how environmentally friendly your driving is, and give yourself good driving habits.
On-board computer that provides feedback on your driving.
How do you drive more environmentally friendly?
Choice of driving route
Which route will produce the least emissions? It is not necessarily the shortest route that produces the least emissions. Traffic, road conditions and terrain affect emissions.
Look far ahead
If you look far ahead on the road, you drive more environmentally friendly. That's because you can adapt your driving to what's coming.
For example, you can slow down if you see that you are coming to an intersection where you have to stop - so you might avoid stopping altogether. A full stop requires a lot of energy, so it's smart to avoid it.
Good distance to the driver in front
If you have a good distance to the driver in front, you have the freedom to increase and decrease your speed as you wish, without disturbing other traffic. Then you can use the terrain to your advantage: increase your speed before going uphill, so you can get up without too high revs. Slow down before going downhill, so you can get down without too much brake use. This is environmentally friendly.
Rush traffic
Rush-hour traffic can lead to a lot of stopping, halting and slow driving. It is not environmentally friendly. It may not be that easy, but if you can, you should avoid rush hour traffic.
Vehicle in good condition
The bus should have the correct air pressure in the tires and the correct wheel position. This provides the lowest possible rolling resistance, and thus the lowest possible fuel consumption.
GPS is an important tool in planning driving routes.
8. Planning of driving
8.3 The industry's expectations and attitudes
Cross pressure
Cross pressure is when you feel you have to satisfy two conflicting parties.
For example, you may want to stand a little extra at the bus stop to let in someone who is trying to catch the bus - but you know that your employer would like you to stay on schedule and get to the next bus stop in time.
And in rush hour traffic, you would like to show consideration and drive calmly and calmly, but you also have to get ahead in a demanding traffic situation - and it will be difficult to do both.
Such dilemmas can be difficult, and they can lead to stress and bad decisions. Cross pressure is thus an accident risk, which you must learn to handle yourself. You cannot always satisfy all parties, and a good employer must also be aware of that. If it gets too bad, you can talk to colleagues or your employer.
Driving under stress
It is not only cross pressure that can cause stress for a bus driver. Perhaps you are unsure of your own skills or feel that you haven't had enough training? Maybe you find the language difficult?
Whatever the reason, you should try to counteract the effect of the stress, so that you do not become a danger in traffic.
Strategies to counteract stress
- Seek support from colleagues and friends. Talking about your problems can help you cope with them.
- Be good at taking breaks so you can catch up.
- A healthy diet and physical activity means that you are better equipped physically to withstand stress.
- Make sure you get enough sleep and work on mental relaxation.
9. First aid and accident preparedness
9.0 Introduction
Chapter 9: First aid and emergency preparedness
As a professional driver, you have extra responsibility in the event of an accident. You must be able to secure various damage sites, and perform life-saving first aid. This is the subject of this chapter. We will look at:
- 9.1 Duties in the event of an accident
- 9.2 What should you do in the event of an accident?
- 9.3 Firefighting, fire damage and ADR
- 9.4 Tunnels
- 9.5 Psychology
- 9.6 Control tasks
9. First aid and accident preparedness
9.1 Duties in the event of an accident
The lorry driver's duties in the event of a traffic accident
It is a criminal offense not to help in the event of a traffic accident, and you must stop, even if you are not involved. If many people have already arrived at the scene of the accident and it looks like they are under control, you do not need to stop.
It is not easy to keep a cool head when you are involved in an accident - and often you will find that there is chaos at the scene of the accident. If you take the lead and ensure that the right measures are taken, you can help save lives.
- Start by securing the injury site. It is important that the site of the injury is properly secured, so that more mishaps and accidents are avoided. Set out warning triangles. Remember to wear a reflective vest when exiting the vehicle.
- Get an overview. Who is injured and who needs attention first?
- Contact the emergency services. You must notify 113. When the emergency services arrive at the scene of the accident, they will take over the organisation.
- Practice life-saving first aid. Get an overview of who needs supervision first. Remember that it is not always those who scream the loudest who need the most help.
Clear and calm
If you can, you should act calmly and composedly at the scene of the accident. This can have a positive psychological effect on the others involved. It will also make it easier for you to explain what has happened when you talk to the emergency services.
Accident risk
Norway vs. Europe
Norway is one of the safest countries in the world when it comes to the risk of traffic accidents, and the development is positive. Nevertheless, there are studies that show that Norway has more fatal accidents involving heavy vehicles than the rest of Europe. The explanation may be that in Norway we have many narrow and winding roads, where foreign drivers in particular have a hard time. We also have a lot of smooth roads.
Accident statistics
- Head-on accidents - 70% of fatal accidents involving heavy vehicles were head-on accidents.
- Safer in heavy vehicles – In only 15% of fatal accidents involving a heavy vehicle, the deceased was in the heavy vehicle.
- Soft road users - When it comes to accidents with soft road users, Norway is much safer than the rest of Europe.
- Road conditions - If the road is slippery, wet, narrow or winding, the chance of an accident increases considerably.
Soft trafficants
Soft road users are non-motorized road users such as pedestrians, cyclists, kickers, skiers, etc. Soft refers to the fact that soft road users are particularly vulnerable to traffic accidents and collisions.
9. First aid and accident preparedness
9.2 What should you do in the event of an accident? (1/2)
Side bed and CPR
Help the injured
In a traffic accident where people have been injured, you must always consider whether someone needs life-saving first aid.
The person is unconscious
An unconscious person cannot keep the airways clear themselves if something should lead to a blockage of the airways. Therefore, first ensure that the person has a free airway by bending the person's head backwards and place the person in a side-lying position if breathing seems normal.
If the person is unconscious and not breathing or breathing with gasping, short and irregular breaths, you must immediately perform CPR.
The person is conscious
If the person is conscious, you must ask them if they have pain or other ailments, and try to get an overview of the person's condition. It can be difficult for the injured person to assess this himself. Be calm and confident in your behavior.
The helmet must come off!
If a person is unconscious and wearing a helmet, the helmet must come off. This is to prevent the injured person from choking on blood or vomit. Previously, it was recommended to leave it on, because there was a fear of aggravating neck injuries. But now this has changed: an intact neck is of little help if you are suffocated by blocked airways.
Ideally, there should be two people when removing the helmet. One that supports the person's neck, and one that pulls the helmet off. It is important to be careful.
Side rent
As a general rule, all unconscious persons who are breathing should be placed in the side position. In side lying, the risk of choking on vomit or blood is lower, and the patient is given a stable position without pressure on the chest and lungs.
In side lying, you lie on your side with your legs bent. The legs should not lie on top of each other, but should be positioned so that the body lies firmly on its side. The head can be supported by placing a hand under the jaw.
Make sure the airways are clear. Check your breathing regularly.
CPR
If the injured person is not breathing, you must start CPR, i.e. cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Here it is important to get started quickly - if the brain is without oxygen for too long, the injured person can suffer brain damage or die.
CPR consists of chest compressions and mouth to mouth. Chest compression is done by pressing down on the patient's chest. This should simulate a heartbeat. Mouth to mouth should simulate breathing, and is done by blowing into the patient's mouth.
We start CPR with 30 chest compressions followed by 2 breaths.
CPR on adults
When performing CPR on adults, one must not be overly cautious. The chest compressions should press the chest down by 4–5 cm.
This is what you do:
- Place the patient on his back. Floor or on the ground is best, the surface must not be too soft.
- Do 30 chest compressions. The speed should be such that you manage a little more than one compression per second.
- Pinch the nostrils again and push the chin up, as if the patient is looking up.
- Make 2 breaths while the patient is held in this position, and while holding the nose. Blow until the chest rises, and do not overdo it.
- Repeat. Continue like this until paramedics are ready to take over, or until the patient is clearly breathing on their own.
Raise your chin. When the patient is in this position, you can also listen to see if the patient is breathing.
CPR on children and infants
The principle of CPR is exactly the same for children as it is for adults, but CPR must be done slightly differently for children and infants:
Small children and infants have large heads in relation to their bodies, and will not have completely free airways on a flat surface. Place a book or a blanket under your back, so that your head tilts slightly backwards.
Start with five breaths, rather than chest compressions. The inhalations are done by blowing the air in through the nose and mouth at the same time, instead of holding the nose. Do not blow in too much air, it can damage the lungs. Remember that you have much larger lungs than a child, so you cannot blow all your air into the child's lungs.
When you begin the chest compressions, use one hand to press down on the chest on children, and two fingers to press on the chest on infants. The fingers should lie approximately in the middle between the nipples. Do 30 chest compressions.
Therefore:
On infants, only the fingers are used when doing chest compressions.
9. First aid and accident preparedness
9.2 What should you do in the event of an accident? (2/2)
External bleeding
If the wound is not life-threatening, treat it to avoid later infection. Clean the wound with water or wound cleaner if you have it. Apply a bandage or bind the wound in other ways.
Foreign bodies
If the wound has a foreign object in it, for example a stone, sticks or car parts, you must consider whether it is wise to remove it or not. If removing it will make the bleeding worse, you must not do so. In such cases, you should rather try to stabilize the area where the wound is, so that the bleeding does not worsen.
Severe external bleeding
In the case of more serious external bleeding, you must have the bleeding stopped as quickly as possible. If there is a hole in the artery, it is particularly acute. First of all, you must place the wound higher off the ground than the patient's heart is. Then gravity helps to keep the blood away from the wound. Then put pressure on the wound until the bleeding stops. If you have something to bind the wound with, you can do so, but you must ensure that there is good pressure down on the wound. You can do that with a stone or something else hard that you have available: first lash a few rounds, place the stone on the wound, and lash it firmly so that it presses down on the wound.
Loss of body parts
If the injured person has had an arm or leg torn off, you must initially treat the fracture as a wound. Press hard and see if you can stop the bleeding. Cover with plenty of bandage or other suitable textile. If the bleeding doesn't stop, you can tie something around what's left of the arm or leg to stop the blood from getting any further.
Make sure to bring a bandage. It can save lives.
Internal bleeding
Internal bleeding can occur from collisions or broken bones, and it is not necessarily easy to detect. Typical symptoms are that the injured person is cold and clammy, and the face is white. Internal bleeding also often leads to unconsciousness.
Call 113
Many of our organs bleed profusely if they are damaged, and it is important to act quickly. You cannot perform normal first aid on a wound with internal bleeding, so it is important that the injured person gets to hospital as soon as possible. Call 113. Make sure the injured person stays warm and lies flat or with their legs raised. And do not give the injured person anything to drink - you must never give water to an injured person who may be bleeding internally.
Internal bleeding can be difficult to detect.
Circulation failure
Typical symptoms of circulatory failure are clammy and cold skin, rapid breathing, low blood pressure and abnormally low/high pulse. Circulatory failure is also called shock.
Treatment for circulatory failure
There is not very much you can do with a person who has circulatory failure. Make sure the person in question is placed on their side, and follow up. Also make sure the person stays warm. If the person has cardiac arrest, you must perform CPR.
If the person is sitting in the car, you should not move them if it is not strictly necessary. There may be a risk of back and neck injuries, which can be aggravated by movement.
9. First aid and accident preparedness
9.3 Firefighting, burn damage and ADR (1/2)
Fire in vehicle
The most important thing you learn about fires in vehicles is how to prevent them.
Prevent fire
A fire occurs if a place with oxygen and combustible material becomes sufficiently hot. There are several things you can do to prevent this from happening in your vehicle:
- You need to make sure that everything is ok with the brakes, wheels and tires. If something is wrong here, for example loose wheel bearings or uneven tyres, frictional heat can occur.
- The electrical system must be undisturbed. The cables must not rub against other parts. This also applies to cables that are protected by pipes. If you are going to change the fuse, you must ensure that the new fuse is correct. Never use a fuse with a larger capacity than what should be there.
- If you are going to replace components or repair something you have no idea about, you must use professionals. Small faulty installations in the vehicle can be dangerous, and difficult for you to identify.
- It should not leak oil or fuel. To identify a leak, you can look for fluid under the car.
Be prepared
You can also prevent a small fire from becoming a big fire. Then you must be prepared and know the car you are driving. You must know where to find the main fuse, fire extinguisher and other safety measures.
Extinguish fire
Before attempting to extinguish the fire, you should apply the parking brake and turn off the main power switch.
In the event of a fire, you should turn off the main power switch.
Fire extinguisher
Fire extinguishers are easy to use and they are effective in putting out fires. All buses must be equipped with a fire extinguisher, and you must know where it is.
Use of fire extinguishers
Fire extinguishers contain a powder that prevents the flame from getting oxygen.
First, you must prepare the device by pulling the fuse at the top of the handle. The fuse is usually a ring. Try to keep the device slightly away from your body and face when you pull out the fuse. When the fuse is out, aim the nozzle at the source of the flames and spray. Move the device back and forth to cover an area with powder.
If you hit, the flame should decrease quite quickly.
Fire with people involved
If there is a person in a burning vehicle, focus on getting the person out and away from the heat. You must do this as soon as possible, so do not wait until the fire in the vehicle is out.
If the person has burning clothes, you can try to smother the flames with a blanket, or something else suitable. Remember that the head is the most important thing, and it should be saved first. If you don't have a blanket, you can roll the person on the ground, or pour water on them.
First aid for burns
Burns on the body must be cooled as soon as possible. Use whatever is available, such as snow or water. The wound should be kept cold as long as possible.
Bandage
Even if the wound is not bleeding, it should be wrapped with a sterile bandage. This is because the wound surface in burns is large, and this increases the risk of infection. Buzz so you cover the entire damage. If the wound has burnt-on clothes or other things, you should leave it alone. It should be removed by healthcare personnel. If you manage to get to the wound, you can lacerate it even if things are burned.
Most first aid kits have sterile bandages.
Burns must be bandaged, even if they are not bleeding.
9. First aid and accident preparedness
9.3 Firefighting, burn damage and ADR (2/2)
Accident with dangerous goods
Accidents involving vehicles transporting dangerous goods can have great damage potential. When you travel a lot in traffic, you must be prepared for such a situation, and as a professional driver you have an additional responsibility.
What should you do?
- Call the emergency services: the emergency services must know where the accident is, as precisely as possible. You must also inform them if any of the vehicles involved have orange plates and if they have numbers on them. In that case, you must enter the number shown on the orange sign. Also inform them if there is a release of dangerous goods.
- Transport accident card: if your vehicle is transporting the dangerous goods involved, you must have a transport accident card in the cab. Here are simple instructions for what to do.
- Dangerous goods in another vehicle: if there is another vehicle involved that is carrying dangerous goods, the driver must know what to do in the first place. If the driver of the dangerous goods vehicle is unconscious, you can see if you can find the transport accident card. It must be kept accessible and visible.
- Keep your distance: keep a good distance from the accident, and try to warn others who are nearby. Dangerous goods can cause an explosion. You should avoid breathing in or coming into contact with dangerous goods, so in addition to keeping your distance, you must also pay attention to the direction of the wind.
- Fire: you must never attempt to extinguish a fire in dangerous goods, and if it is on fire, you should get away from the vehicle. But if you think it is safe to be nearby, you can use a fire extinguisher to put out small fires in the deck or elsewhere away from the goods.
Look for orange signage on vehicles involved in accidents.