This is a complete theory course for driving license class C (truck). At teoriprove.com you can practice for the theory test for class C for free.
If you are preparing for the theory test for class B, you can read a theory course for class B (passenger car) .

In this first chapter we will look at:

• 1.1 The curriculum in Class C
• 1.2 Repetition from class B
• 1.3 Control tasks

1. Introduction

1.1 The curriculum in Class C

The curriculum

The curriculum for class C includes everything you need to learn, both theory and practice. It is divided into four parts:

• Step 1 Basic course heavy vehicles
• Step 2 Basic vehicle and driving skills
• Step 3 Traffic competence
• Step 4 Final training

You are not expected to know the curriculum for class C at RAMS, but it can be useful to use it as a reference. All topics in this curriculum can be tested on, both in practical and theoretical exams.

What are you going to learn?

Step 1

The first step in heavy vehicle training is the basic heavy vehicle course. If you have already completed the basic course in one of the other heavy vehicle classes, you do not need to take it again now.

Step 2

In the second stage, you will learn to master the vehicle. Everything from starting and stopping to driving on curves and hills is covered in this stage. Here you will also learn about the vehicle's construction and operation. The stage ends with a mandatory stage assessment lesson.

Step 3

In stage 3, you learn how to drive in traffic. To do this in the best possible way, you also learn about legislation, calculating and placing loads, and planning your journey.

Step 4

In the final stage, you will go through courses: accident preparedness courses, first aid, road safety courses, cargo securing courses and track safety courses.

1. Introduction

1.2 Repetition from class B (1/2)

Class B

Are you coming straight from the class B driving test and lack practical experience in traffic? Or have you been driving for many years, but have forgotten much of the syllabus? When you are going to take the class C test, you are expected to remember a lot of the material from class B. Here we will look at the most important things – that is, what is most relevant when you are going out into traffic with a heavy truck.

• Interaction: In what ways can you communicate with your fellow road users?
• The driving process: What elements can interfere with or delay you in traffic situations?
• The rules of the road: How can you anticipate different traffic situations?
• Yield: Do you need to stop for a bus that is flashing its lights out of the bus lane on the highway?
• Traffic regulation: Can you stop on a motorway to drop off goods?

1. Introduction

1.2 Repetition from class B (2/2)

Interaction

Interaction between road users is crucial for good traffic flow and safety. When you drive a heavy vehicle, you are extra visible in traffic, and some road users will be extra attentive to your driving. Therefore, you should be aware of the signals you send out to your fellow road users. You should also use your attention to get help from other road users, where this increases traffic flow.

Typical situations where you can contribute to good interaction:

• Road with multiple lanes in the same direction: Stay in the right lane if you can, so that traffic can pass you on the left. When merging, it is important to drive predictably so that the traffic you are merging with feels safe.
• Duty to yield: If you have a duty to yield, slow down in good time and show other road users that you are complying with the duty to yield. If you drive too aggressively, the traffic you are supposed to yield to may stop. This creates poor traffic flow.

The driving process

The driving process is the process from noticing a traffic situation to taking action. For example, the time it takes from seeing a moose in the road to hitting the brakes.

When you drive a car, your brain has to process many driving processes at the same time. If you are attentive, alert and clear-headed, you spend less time perceiving and making decisions. This is good for road safety. Experience also influences how long you spend on the driving process.

The driving process is divided into four:

• Sense: Your eye receives information, but your brain hasn't processed it yet.
• Perceive: The brain recognizes what you see and what is happening.
• Decides: You consider different solutions for further action and choose one of them.
• Act: You implement what you have decided to do.

The Se rules

When you are driving in traffic, you must constantly obtain information about the traffic situation. You get 90% of this information through your vision. You interpret the behavior of other road users and adapt your own driving accordingly. If you follow the vision rules, it will be easier to keep an overview and to anticipate the traffic. The vision rules are:

• Look far ahead.
• Move your gaze.
• Take an overview.
• Be seen and understood.
• Always look for a way out.

Duty to yield

If you have a duty to yield, you must not obstruct or disturb the road user to whom you have a duty to yield.

It is important to communicate that you will comply with the duty to yield. Therefore, you should slow down in good time. This will prevent other road users from slowing down because they are unsure. If they have to slow down because of you, you have essentially violated the duty to yield – because it requires that you not cause any disruption to the traffic you are supposed to yield to.

If the speed limit is 60 km/h or less, you have a duty to give way to buses at the bus stop.

Traffic regulation

This is a subject that many people struggle with when taking the theory test for class B. Although traffic regulation is not on the curriculum for class C, this is basic knowledge that you must have before you start the truck app. But what do we mean by traffic regulation?

• Police, traffic rules, traffic lights, signs and road markings
• The relationship between these – the pyramid of authority
• Rules for stopping and parking
• Rules for driving on the motorway
• Crossing a level crossing

Remember the pyramid of power?

Level crossing

A level crossing is a place where a road crosses a train, railway or tram track.

2. The drive

2.0 Introduction

Chapter 2: The Drive

Driving a heavy truck presents a great many traffic challenges that you are not used to from class B. You probably learn driving best through practical exercises and driving lessons, but it is good to know something about the different challenges you will encounter in the city and on the road.

In this chapter we will look at:

• 2.1 Truck size
• 2.2 Blind spots
• 2.3 Truck weight
• 2.4 Backing up, overturning and overtaking
• 2.5 Control tasks

2. The drive

2.1 Truck size (1/4)

A big car takes up more space

Trucks take up much more space than cars. This means you have to drive a little differently than you would in a car. For example, you have to turn a little differently, take a little different precautions, and plan even better.

Do you remember the basic traffic rules of the Road Traffic Act?

§ 3 The basic rule for traffic

Everyone must travel with consideration and be alert and cautious so that no danger arises or damage is caused and so that other traffic is not unnecessarily obstructed or disturbed.

Driving a big car

2. The drive

2.1 Truck size (2/4)

Intersections and roundabouts

Your size creates extra challenges in crossings. There are many things to consider:

• Borrowing space: Since the truck has a long axle spacing, it has a large turning radius. This means that it often has to borrow space from other lanes. When borrowing space, you need to be alert, seek cooperation, and plan well. Which lane you borrow space from depends on the design of the intersection, your visibility into the intersecting road, and the willingness of other road users to cooperate with you.
• Overhang: On trucks, a large part of the bodywork protrudes in front of and behind the axles. When turning right, the overhang can sweep over the lane to the left of the truck. When turning left, the overhang can sweep over the sidewalk or sign. It is important to keep overhang in mind when driving a truck.
• Be prepared: You need to think about location, conflicts, and obstacles before entering an intersection. This will help you avoid creating problems or dangerous situations.

Turning radius

How tight you can turn. Large cars tend to have a large turning radius – they need a lot of space to turn.

Bodywork

The exterior parts of the car. The body is usually made of steel, aluminum or plastic.

2. The drive

2.1 Truck size (3/4)

Distance to road users

You should maintain a distance of 5 seconds or more to the vehicle in front. Trucks have a high potential for damage, so it is important to have an extra margin of safety. If the road is bad, you should maintain an even greater distance.

Distance also gives you space to run your own race: increase speed before uphills, and slow down before downhills. Without disturbing other traffic.

• Distance before uphills: Before longer uphills, it may be a good idea to drop even further behind the traffic ahead. This will allow you to accelerate a little bit before the hill starts without getting too close to the traffic ahead, and you will carry your speed into the hill.
• Distance on the sides of the vehicle: When passing slow-moving road users, remember that your vehicle creates air pressure that can be uncomfortable for the person you are passing. If you are going to pass soft road users, you should keep a distance of at least 1.5 meters. And if you can skip overtaking, that is the best.
• Intersections and level crossings: In some situations, you must stop before an intersection or level crossing if there is no room for you on the other side of the intersection. This will avoid being stuck in the middle of the intersection, in the way of crossing vehicles.
• Be considerate: Large vehicles can be intimidating to other road users. Be aware of this when driving, especially in areas with many pedestrians. Even if you feel you have control, both people and animals can become frightened.

Traffic rules!

Traffic regulations require that drivers must be able to stop on the stretch of road that the driver has a clear view of, and in front of any foreseeable obstacle.

Damage potential

The ability of something to cause harm in an accident. A large and heavy car has great potential for harm, because it can quickly cause very serious damage in an accident.

2. The drive

2.1 Truck size (4/4)

Narrow roadway

On narrow stretches of road, it is difficult to pass oncoming vehicles without the risk of collision. There are several things that are important to remember:

• Avoid the shoulder: It can be tempting to pull all the way to the right of the lane to avoid stopping for oncoming traffic. However, you should avoid this. The shoulder may be weak and may not be able to support the weight of a fully loaded truck.
• Speed: When two large vehicles meet on a narrow road, both must slow down and ensure that the passage can be made safely. If necessary, one must stop.
• Obstructed: If the road is obstructed and narrow, you must slow down. You must be able to stop for unforeseen obstacles.
• Meeting points and bus lanes: On long, narrow stretches, you should use meeting points and bus lanes to let traffic behind you pass.

A dotted line on each side of the road means that the road is narrower than 6 meters.

Road shoulder

The shoulder is the part of the road that is outside the curb line. The shoulder is not intended for motorized vehicles. Pedestrians should generally walk on the shoulder and cyclists may choose to ride on the shoulder.

2. The drive

2.2 Blind spots

Blind spots

Blind spots are a problem for all motorized road users – but they are especially relevant for drivers of heavy vehicles. Trucks have large blind spots that can be difficult to keep track of, even with mirrors and a rearview camera.

• Pedestrians: When you stop in front of a pedestrian crossing, you must be aware that you are sitting so high that you may not see if someone is standing directly in front of your vehicle.
• Turning right: When turning right at an intersection or roundabout, it is very important to have an overview. Cyclists and two-wheelers can easily disappear into the blind spot on the right side of the vehicle.
• Slow down: If you are unsure whether there are vehicles in your blind spots on the side, you can slow down a bit so that they appear in your side mirror or come up next to you.

Focus

Imagine if we used mirrors and cameras to remove all the blind spots around the truck. Everything would be so much easier, wouldn't it?

The main problem is that it is difficult to focus on the entire vehicle while keeping your eyes focused forward. So you still need to drive carefully, and always be aware that there may be road users around you.

And remember!! The road users in your blind spot may not know they are in your blind spot. They may think you can see them and act accordingly.

Road users A, B and D are in the blind spot of the truck.

View from the cab

The side mirror can perfectly well hide a person.

And so can the post.

Here you can see the blind spot at the front of the truck. This blind spot is very high. At the bottom of the window by the left windshield wiper you can see the hands of an adult man reaching up.

Person behind the right post:

And the right mirror:

The blind spots in a truck are large – and you should avoid things that make them even larger. Drop unnecessary decorations or instruments on top of the dashboard.

2. The drive

2.3 Truck weight (1/4)

Driving a heavy vehicle

A fully loaded truck is very heavy and experiences significant kinetic forces when it is moving. This means that it has great potential for damage: it can cause a lot of damage and destruction if something goes wrong.

In addition, the weight of trucks puts a strain on the road network in Norway. Almost all wear and tear on Norwegian roads comes from heavy vehicles.

You can't do anything about road wear in Norway – but as a truck driver you must be aware of the forces you are putting on your vehicle when driving a heavy vehicle. You must drive carefully and safely, and always comply with the weight restrictions on the road network and vehicle.

2. The drive

2.3 Truck weight (2/4)

Speed ​​– accelerate

Large vehicles take longer to get up to speed than smaller vehicles, so there are a number of things you need to watch out for:

Avoid stopping before intersections

As far as possible, you should slow down well in advance of an intersection or pedestrian crossing. This way you can avoid a complete stop and help traffic flow. It is also more environmentally friendly. Stopping and starting a heavy truck requires a lot of force and takes a long time.

Keep moving

It's a good idea to slow down before you have to, for example at intersections. But don't slow down if you don't have to – your truck uses a lot of power to accelerate.

Interact

Because your vehicle is so heavy and slow, you need time to start and to get up to speed. Therefore, you need a large gap if you are going to cross or enter a lane. In some situations, you depend on the crossing traffic interacting with you and letting you in.

If you are going to cross a level crossing or other dangerous obstacles where interaction is more difficult to achieve, you must be extra careful and know your limitations.

Speed ​​– slow down

To drive carefully and safely with a heavy vehicle, you need to plan your speed reduction in good time. A good heavy vehicle driver is alert, and is able to read the traffic and adjust his speed early. If you start the speed reduction early enough, you can avoid the vehicle coming to a complete stop.

Downhills

Before a long, steep downhill, you should make sure to slow down to reduce the need to use the service brake on the downhill. It is better to slow down a little too much than too little, and let the auxiliary brakes hold the speed down. Heavy vehicles should not slow down all the way down a hill – this can damage the brakes.

Deceleration!

Another word for reducing speed is deceleration.

Service brake

Heavy vehicles have multiple braking systems. The service brakes are the brakes that are activated when the brake pedal is depressed, which directly slows the wheels using a brake disc. It is also called a foot brake.

The service brake has two brake circuits.

Auxiliary brake

The auxiliary brakes are intended to spare the regular brakes (the service brake), which can be damaged if used too much and for too long. There are several types of auxiliary brakes: engine brakes, electromagnetic brakes and turbine brakes.

Braking distance

When talking about stopping a vehicle before an obstacle, i.e. emergency braking, the terms inattention distance, reaction distance, braking distance and stopping distance are often used. You may remember these terms from your class B training – and now that you are going to drive a truck, they are at least as important.

• Inattention span: when a hazard arises, it takes some time before you notice it. The distance you drive during this time is called the inattention span, or inattention period.
• Reaction time: once you have detected the danger, your brain takes some time to process the situation and decide to brake. Reaction time is the distance you cover during this time.
• Braking distance: the distance you need to stop the vehicle after you have applied the brakes.
• Stopping distance: reaction distance and braking distance combined.

During planned and controlled braking, for example at traffic lights, you may find that you do not need as much distance to stop. In such cases, the stopping distance is not as relevant.

But stopping distance, braking distance and inattention distance should remind us of everything that takes time during an emergency brake, and how far you can drive in this time. And thus, how long a stopping distance you actually need.

Braking distance and speed

If you increase your speed, your braking distance increases. And if you decrease your speed, your braking distance decreases.

The braking distance changes if the speed changes. However, the braking distance changes much more than the change in speed: a small change in speed can lead to a large change in braking distance. This is because the braking distance changes with the square of the change in speed.

Example:

A truck is traveling at 60 km/h and has a braking distance of 25 meters. Then the truck increases its speed to 80 km/h. What happens to the braking distance?

We know that it increases. It increases by the square of the change in speed. But what is the change in speed? You find the change in speed by dividing the new speed by the old speed. That's 80/60=1.33. So the change in speed is 1.33. To find the square of this, you multiply the number by itself. So the square of the change in speed is 1.33x1.33=1.77.

The braking distance changes with the square of the change in speed, which is 1.77. This means that the braking distance increases by 1.77. The braking distance of 25 m x 1.77 = 44 meters.

The increase from 60 km/h to 80 km/h gave a 19 meter longer braking distance. It increased from 25 m to 44 m.

2. The drive

2.3 Truck weight (3/4)

Uphills

You may have experienced being behind a truck on an uphill slope. It can be quite slow. As a truck driver, you need to have a long-range vision so that you notice uphill slopes in good time. This is how you can adjust your driving.

Have a good speed before the ground

Before long hills, you should make sure you have plenty of speed, as it is difficult to gain speed once you are on the hill. It is also important to take advantage of the engine's torque and be aware of which gear you are using.

Crab field

Long, heavily trafficked inclines sometimes have crawl spaces on the far right of the road. These are intended for vehicles that cannot keep up with the speed of other road users. If you park here, you will avoid creating a queue.

Interaction

Your challenges will be easier if other traffic interacts. But they may not think about the extra challenges you have on the ground, so it's not something you can count on when planning.

It is an advantage if you do not have to stop before entering this road. A truck that is stationary on the uphill slope needs a very long time to get onto the road.

Torque

The force with which the axles are turned. Measured in Newton meters (Nm).

Torque is a property of a car, just like horsepower. But usually we talk about torque as the force a wheel has in a given situation, and how this force can be best utilized. RPM affects the torque in a car, and the right RPM provides efficient acceleration.

Downhills

When going downhill, be careful not to drive too fast. Slow down before the hill so that you don't have to brake as much on the hill.

If the service brake is used too much, the brake discs can glaze over and lose braking effect. They can also get hot and start to burn.

Low gear and auxiliary brakes can relieve the service brake.

Glazing

Also called fading. Glazing is slippery brake pads.

Brakes work because of friction: the brake pad is pressed against the brake disc on the wheel, and the wheel can no longer spin. The car then stops. If the brake pad is glazed, i.e. slippery, it will not slow down as well.

Weak braking over a long period of time can lead to glazing. But so can heavy braking over a short period of time. Controlled sudden braking can prevent glazing.

2. The drive

2.3 Truck weight (4/4)

Slippery road

In Norway, the winter is long and cold, creating major challenges on the roads. There are many accidents and skids involving heavy vehicles during the winter.

If you are going to drive a truck in Norway, you need to know what challenges you may encounter when the road is slippery.

Hills

If the ground is too slippery, you risk not getting up all the way. In the worst case, you will start to slide backwards. This makes it difficult to maintain control of the vehicle, and can create very dangerous situations.

The same can happen on downhill slopes. On a level road, you can slide sideways if you don't have enough speed or grip.

Slippery roads often lead to skidding.

Chain

Before driving up or down a hill, you must consider chains. Chains must be placed before the hill, not on the hill. Put on a reflective vest, and position the truck as safely as possible.

Road grip

You need to know what kind of grip you have at any given time, and there are many factors that can cause grip to change quickly. Local weather conditions can change when you drive to new places, and temperature changes and winds can make the road unpredictable. Salting and gritting practices may also differ in different areas of the country. In addition, you must always be aware of hazards such as freezing rain and snow-covered ice.

You can test the road conditions by making a controlled brake at low speed, to see if it can be done safely, without endangering yourself or other road users.

Dosed

A graded road is sloping where the road curves, so that water runs off and turns feel comfortable. If you drive too slowly through a graded curve, you can slide sideways off the road.

2. The drive

2.4 Backing up, overturning and overtaking (1/3)

Reversing a truck

Reversing a truck is different from backing up a car. The truck is much larger, and it has larger blind spots.

Reversing a truck requires planning. Think about where you are going before you start reversing. Find a place where you have a good view and where the distance you have to reverse will be as short as possible. If you see that you can avoid reversing, that is the best option.

Helper

By law, you have a duty to make sure that reversing can be done safely. Sometimes visibility is so poor that it is impossible to see on your own, and then you must use an assistant. If there are many pedestrians in the area, this is especially important.

The assistant should position himself so that he has an overview of blind spots and can communicate with the driver.

Helper

If you cannot maneuver the vehicle safely, the law requires you to use an assistant.

The helper should be positioned where there is a good view of you and your blind spot. The position should be quite far back, so that you can see what is happening behind the vehicle. It is smart to stand on the left side, as this is closest to the driver.

Placement of helper

2. The drive

2.4 Backing up, overturning and overtaking (2/3)

Tipping hazard

Heavy vehicles with a high center of gravity are particularly susceptible to rollovers. Unfortunately, many heavy vehicle drivers are unaware of how little it takes to rollover. You should be especially careful in the following situations:

• Curves and roundabouts increase the risk of rollover, especially at high speeds. Slow down and drive in a controlled manner.
• Ruts and height differences on the road can lead to a rollover if the height difference between the right and left wheel pairs becomes too great. Be aware of where you position yourself, and pay attention to the height difference.
• Sudden evasive maneuvers will often cause the truck to swerve away at high speed. This increases the risk of overturning. If the truck also drives onto uneven ground, the risk of overturning can be even greater.
• Good traction is good, but it does not reduce the risk of rollovers. Rollovers occur when the truck is moving at high speed and "stumbles" on the road due to the friction of the tires against the road surface.

2. The drive

2.4 Backing up, overturning and overtaking (3/3)

To overtake

Overtaking is risky regardless of the type of vehicle. Overtaking requires you to think through:

• Is it really worth it? How much will you save by overtaking? If it's only a few minutes, it's probably not worth taking the chance.
• Distance: How long of a distance do I have available?
• Forces: How much force, or momentum, do I have in my vehicle?
• You are driving a heavy car: And heavy cars take time to build up speed. This is unfortunate when overtaking.
• You are driving a long car: And long cars have to stay longer in the oncoming lane before they can get back into their own lane. This creates even more risk.

Has the driver of the truck made a good assessment here?

To be overtaken

If you drive a truck and stick to the truck's legal speed, you will often be overtaken. You should be aware of this. You can make overtaking safer by watching your mirrors and slowing down.

Turn signal

Many heavy vehicle drivers use their turn signals to warn the traffic behind that it is safe to overtake. This is both dangerous and prohibited. It is not good to know whether the signal means a clear path, a sudden obstacle or a lane change. The risk of misunderstanding is great – so such signals should be avoided.

3. The vehicle

3.0 Introduction

Chapter 3: The Vehicle

When you are going to drive a truck, you need to know how the truck works. You need to know the vehicle's construction and operation – or KKVM, as traffic instructors often call it. When you know how the truck works, you will be better able to operate the vehicle, and to understand the vehicle's behavior.

In this chapter we will look at:

• 3.1 The structure
• 3.2 The steering
• 3.3 Wheels, tires and chains
• 3.4 Engine and drivetrain
• 3.5 Brake and brake circuit
• 3.6 Lighting and the electrical system
• 3.7 Daily check
• 3.8 Control tasks

3. The vehicle

3.1 The structure (1/2)

What is a truck?

A truck is a vehicle with a permissible gross vehicle weight of 3,500 kg or more, which is used to transport goods and cargo. If you have a class C license, there are no restrictions on the weight of the vehicle. However, as soon as you are going to tow a trailer heavier than 750 kg, you must have a class CE license.

Flatbed truck

A flatbed truck is a truck with a visible loading platform. This means there is no cabinet or building that hides the platform. The flatbed truck usually has fold-down frames and a hatch at the back.

Dump truck

A tipper truck also usually has a visible platform, but here it is not always possible to fold down the frames. The tipper truck can lift the platform with a hydraulic tipper.

Box truck

A box truck is a truck with a fixed body. The body acts as a box. This type of truck is very common.

Convertible car

A curtain sided truck only has a framework as a roof – no walls. On top of the framework is a tarpaulin, which is intended to protect the load from the elements.

Tractor truck

A tractor unit is a shorter truck, specifically designed to pull a semi-trailer. A tractor unit is also called a tractor trailer.

Vehicles, motor vehicles and truck combinations

Anything that has a vehicle registration is a vehicle. This means that both a car and a trailer are considered vehicles. A vehicle with an engine is called a motor vehicle.

When several vehicles are coupled together, i.e. a motor vehicle and one or more trailers, it is called a truck combination.

3. The vehicle

3.1 The structure (2/2)

Frame

An important part of the construction of large vehicles is the frame. This must withstand a lot of weight, but at the same time be flexible enough to withstand twisting and loads. Modifications to the frame must be in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions, and approved according to vehicle regulations.

All major components such as the engine, suspension, cab and bodywork are attached to the frame, in various ways.

A simplified truck frame with wheels.

Underride obstacles

At the rear of the frame there is an underrun barrier, which is intended to prevent cars that collide with the truck from getting stuck under the frame.

The underrun barrier is located on the frame.

There should be no more than 40 cm from the underrun barrier and back to the rear of the plane or the rear of the container. If the distance is too long, a passenger car driving into the rear of the truck could be split in two or have its roof peeled off.

This truck is banned from driving because the distance is too long.

Axles

An axle is the rod to which a pair of wheels is attached.

The axles run across the frame at the front and rear. The wheels are attached to the axles.

Rear axle

The rear axle is the axle that is at the back of the truck.

Differential housing

In the picture you can see a rear axle, with wheels on each side. Between the wheels is the differential housing, which protects the differential.

The differential housing.

Differential

Here you see the differential. It's a kind of gear that allows the wheels on this axle to rotate at different speeds, but with the same force.

The differential.

Wheels at different speeds?

Why should the wheels have different speeds?

Imagine a car driving in a circle. The circle that the two outer wheels have to follow is much larger than the circle that the two inner wheels have to follow. But all the wheels have to complete their circle in the same amount of time. Therefore, the outer wheels have to go faster than the inner wheels.

It's not that common to drive in a circle. But the same principle applies when cornering: the wheels on the outside of the curve must go faster than the wheels on the inside. The differential makes this possible.

Drive shaft and intermediate shaft

The rear axle is almost always a drive axle. A drive axle is an axle that is connected to the engine so that the wheels on the axle turn. It is the drive axle that makes the vehicle move forward.

The driveshaft is connected to the engine through the countershaft. It runs from the differential housing forward to the gearbox.

The center axle and rear axle are highlighted in red.

Here you can see what it looks like on a modern Scania. Here is the intermediate shaft that goes into the differential housing.

Intermediate shaft and differential housing.

Suspension

Between the axles and the frame there is a suspension. The suspension allows the axles to move slightly in relation to the frame. This allows the wheels, which are attached to the axles, to follow the bumps in the road without the frame having to do the same. If the frame had to follow all the bumps, the ride would have been uncomfortable, and the entire structure would have worn out more quickly from all the rocking.

Leaf spring

Many trucks have leaf springs. The most common type of leaf spring is called a parabolic spring.

Parabolic spring

Parabolic springs have 1–5 arches, or blades, that lie close together. They are connected in the middle and at the ends. The spring effect comes from the fact that the arches can be bent.

This type of suspension is quite soft, and provides good driving comfort. Many trucks have parabolic springs at the front and air suspension at the rear.

Parabolic springs on vehicles.

Air suspension

Another type of suspension that is also very common is air suspension. It does not dampen with leaves, but with air bellows.

In the picture below you can see the frame, and the entire air suspension system at one rear axle. The rear axle is colored red. The rear axle is not attached directly to the frame – then there would be no room for movement. It is attached to a support rod.

The strut mount is mounted on a strut mount, which in turn is mounted directly on the frame. The strut mount extends from the strut mount as a movable joint. When the strut mount moves up and down, the axle also moves up and down.

Between the support rod and the frame there are air bellows, two on each support rod. When the support rod is moved up and down by the axle, the air bellows dampen this movement.

Air suspension on the rear axle.

Here you can see what the air suspension looks like on a modern Scania. Here the strut is clearly visible. You can also see the air bellows and the rear axle.

Air suspension.

The advantages of air suspension are:

• The air suspensions are equipped with a height sensor, which can measure the distance to the ground. So, if the vehicle is loaded with a heavy load at the rear, for example, the air suspensions on the rear axle can increase the height of the rear axle by taking in more air. This way, the vehicle can be perfectly straight, regardless of the load.
• You can also adjust the height of a vehicle manually. This can be useful in various situations, such as when unloading or hitching a trailer.
• The system measures how much weight an axle is carrying and displays it on an instrument in the dashboard. This is useful information for the driver.

Air suspension

Shock absorber

Because the suspensions are so resilient, they can act a bit like a spring. They can make the car bounce a little, or bob up and down on uneven roads. This means that the car has less contact with the ground, and less grip. To counteract this, shock absorbers are used. Vehicles with soft suspensions, such as parabolic springs, in particular, need shock absorbers. However, shock absorbers are also used in conjunction with air suspension.

Worn shock absorbers result in poorer road grip and driving comfort.

Each wheel has one shock absorber.

At the top and bottom of the shock absorber there is a ring called an eye. The top eye is threaded onto the frame, and the bottom eye is threaded onto the axle.

Here you see shock absorbers and air bellows.

Bushings

Another thing that should dampen movements is the bushings.

Bushings are usually made of rubber and are located on almost every joint and fitting in the car. They are located where two components are attached to each other, in nuts, around screws or other fasteners. The bushings prevent the components from rubbing against each other.

Since they are located in the fasteners, they also seal small gaps in the structure, preventing looseness and vibrations.

If the car squeaks, the bushings may be darkened or damaged.

This bushing is located on the truck's shock absorber.

Inspection and maintenance

Axles, suspensions and shock absorbers are components that can withstand a lot, and these are checked by a professional when the vehicle is serviced. You should still pay attention when driving and feel if the driving characteristics change. If so, there may be a fault in these components.

On leaf springs, check for breaks in the leaf springs and lubricate as directed in the instruction manual. On air suspension, check for air leaks.

3. The vehicle

3.2 The steering (1/2)

The steering

Now we're going to take a look at the steering of a truck.

Steering wheel

When you drive a car, you turn the steering wheel. The steering wheel is connected to a mechanism at the axle, which pivots the wheels when the steering wheel is turned.

Wheels that can turn are called steering wheels. The front axle always has steering wheels.

It is the front wheels that turn.

Some trucks have an extra set of steered wheels, in addition to the front axle. They are usually on the rear axle of a bogie. In order for these wheels to follow the turn made by the steered wheels on the front axle, they turn in the opposite direction.

Friction-controlled wheels

Wheels can be steered without being turned by the steering wheel: they can be friction-steered, or co-steered, as it is also called. Friction-steered wheels are at the rear, and only turn because they follow the vehicle's turn. When tires are steerable, they will automatically follow the path of least resistance, i.e. the position that provides the least friction against the ground. And that is always the direction of the turn – because then the wheels can roll in the direction the truck is going.

Steering mechanism

Most cars are steered with a steering rack.

Steering gear

The steering column goes into the steering worm. The part of the steering column that is inside the steering worm is called the worm screw.

The worm screw has threads and sits inside a large ball nut. Inside the ball nut is a ball bearing, which ensures that the nut slides freely around the worm screw when the steering wheel is turned.

Ball nut.

There are teeth on the outside of the ball nut, which engage with the teeth of the sector shaft.

When you turn the steering wheel, the worm screw rotates. The threads on the worm screw then move up or down. The same goes for the ball nut, the sector shaft and the pitman arm.

Ball bearings

When something has ball bearings, it means it has balls inside it. For example, you can have balls inside a ball nut. The balls allow the nut to slide almost frictionlessly around whatever it is screwed around.

Ball bearings are also used in bicycle handlebars, moped handlebars and skateboard wheels.

Power steering

All modern vehicles have power steering. Power steering helps change the direction of the wheels when you turn the steering wheel, so you don't have to use your own power alone. It makes the steering wheel easier to turn.

How does power steering work?

Right next to the steering worm is an oil tank with hydraulic oil, and a pump. The oil tank and pump are connected to the steering worm with a hose. They are also connected to each other.

When you turn the steering wheel, oil is pumped into the steering gear. The oil is under high pressure and is pumped to provide thrust to the right or left – depending on which way you turn. The thrust works together with the force from your hand on the steering wheel.

If there is oil spillage under the car, there may be a leak in the power steering.

Steering gear with pump and oil tank for power steering.

Turn when the truck is stationary!

Power steering makes it easy to fine-tune the truck, for example when parking in a parking lot, where you have to turn the wheels when the truck is stationary. However, this puts strain on both the steering mechanism and the tires, so it should be avoided if possible. Although the steering wheel is easy to turn, it takes a lot of effort to turn.

3. The vehicle

3.2 The steering (2/2)

Steering characteristics

Steering characteristics are how the vehicle is to steer.

The steering characteristics are the result of many things at once, including:

• lead
• tire pressure
• number of axles: single axle or bogie?
• placement of cargo

A truck has some steering characteristics that you don't always think about much when driving on good roads. But on uneven roads or in poor conditions, they can become more noticeable. In such situations, you may notice oversteer or understeer, for example.

Oversteer and understeer

Oversteer means that the vehicle turns more than the steering wheel angle would indicate.

Understeer means that the vehicle turns less than the steering wheel angle would indicate.

It's not easy to say exactly what causes understeer and what causes oversteer. There are far too many different things that influence it.

However, there are special situations that are known to lead to oversteering or understeering, and it is useful to be aware of these.

Steering wheel deflection

A steering wheel turn is a given rotation of the steering wheel. That is:

Full steering wheel travel means that the steering wheel is turned as far as it will go. A small steering wheel travel is turning the steering wheel a little.

A steering wheel movement of 4 cm should be enough for the wheels to start turning.

Override

Rear-heavy car on dry road

When the truck comes to a bend, the driver turns the steering wheel so the truck follows the bend. But the load at the back has such good speed straight ahead – and it will continue straight ahead. It will continue forward because of inertial forces. The load is like a force, pushing the rear end out of the bend.

The load is at the back of the truck, and forms the vehicle's center of gravity. The front therefore loses some weight, and thus some traction. In addition, the front wheels are in a turning position. This together means that the front end participates in the rotation created by the rear end.

Inertial forces

When a car makes a sharp turn, loose objects inside the car fly straight ahead. They don't follow the turn of the car. This is because of the inertial forces of the objects. They are slow - it takes time for them to join the car on the turn.

When you let off the gas, it takes time for the car to slow down – this is also due to inertial forces.

Understeer

Slippery road

Slippery roads will usually always lead to understeer, regardless of whether the car is rear-heavy or front-heavy.

On slippery roads, cars can slide out of a curve. This is because the tires don't get enough grip on the road - so it slides away. If the car slides straight ahead in such a situation, it can be called understeer.

Understeer on slippery roads.

Low air pressure in front wheels

Too little air pressure in the front wheels can cause understeer. Wheels with low air pressure have a larger surface area against the ground and grip better. This means more force is required to turn.

Low-inflated tires have a large surface area against the ground.

Understeer when overloading a car

Many people believe that a heavily loaded car will always oversteer because the front steering wheels have good traction. However, a heavily loaded car with a center of gravity at the front of the load bed will quickly understeer.

When the car comes to the bend and is about to turn, the load is well on its way forward. It will continue forward, just like in the previous example, where the truck was rear-heavy. The difference is the center of gravity: now the center of gravity is further forward on the truck. The car will therefore not rotate in the same way. Both because the rear of the car does not have the same forces, and because the steering front wheels have good grip.

What happens now, and what leads to understeer, is that the car that wants to turn has to fight against the forces in the load, which wants to go straight ahead. This reduces the turn.

The center of gravity is at the front of the car. This means that the rear end will not push the truck into rotation.

Film about oversteer and understeer

Bogie lift

Lifting an axle in a bogie can also affect the steering characteristics. The general rule is that the car will understeer if you lift an axle that is in front of the drive axle, and oversteer if you lift one that is behind the drive axle.

Override

The most common bogie has the drive axle first, and the running axle at the rear. When you lift the running axle, you can experience oversteer. The rear axle that remains on the ground becomes like the middle of a dump truck, and the axle that is lifted up at the rear increases the weight at the rear of the truck. Then the front axle is lifted up a little. And then there is less friction between the road and the steering wheels, and thus the risk of oversteer.

Understeer

Many tractors have bogies with a front running axle, a so-called pusher axle. This has the opposite effect. You get more weight at the front of the front axle, instead of it being lifted up. This means more friction on the steering wheels, and the risk of understeer.

Differential lock

The differential is located on the drive shaft. As mentioned earlier, it allows wheels on the same axle to spin at different speeds, which is useful when cornering. The differential can be disengaged with the differential lock.

Here is the differential housing on a modern truck.

Why turn off the differential?

If the road is slippery, you may find that one of the wheels on the drive axle has traction and the other does not. The differential then causes the wheel with traction to stand still, while the wheel without traction spins. The car will not get anywhere. Then you have to lock the differential. This is done with a differential lock, which is operated from the cab.

The differential lock means that the wheels on the drive axle are locked to each other, and therefore must have the same speed. Then the wheel with traction can force the wheel without traction forward.

It doesn't look exactly the same in all cars, but there is usually a switch in the cab.

Switch to turn the differential lock on and off.

Display

New trucks also have a display where you can see an overview of the axles on the vehicle, and whether the differential is locked or not. A cross in the middle of the axle means that the differential is locked – that is, that the differential lock is on. A circle in the middle of the axle means that the differential is on, and the differential lock is therefore off.

Overview image on the display in the car. The rounding on the rear axle shows that the differential is not locked. The differential lock is therefore switched off.

Careful use of the differential lock

Be careful when locking the differential. Forcing the wheels on the drive axle to have the same speed can damage the entire drivetrain. On slippery roads, it can also cause the truck to skid if both drive wheels lose grip. The differential should be locked when the vehicle is stationary, and it should be unlocked again when you start driving.

You should never lock the differential if your wheel is already spinning, for example if you are standing and accelerating on a slippery uphill slope.

You should never lock the differential if you know you have to turn. It is not good for the car to turn without a differential.

It is best for the car to have flexible rear wheels, so you must always be careful with the differential lock.

Drive shaft

Axle with wheels that are rotated by the engine. It is the drive axle that makes the vehicle move forward. Wheels that are not driven spin freely.

Control and maintenance

Daily check

• Before driving, you should pay attention to whether there is fluid on the ground under the car. This could be a leak in the power steering or other hydraulics.
• When you start the car, pay attention to how the steering wheel behaves: you should notice that the power steering is turned on when the engine starts. You will notice this by the steering wheel becoming easier to turn.

Periodic control

• Read in the instruction manual how to check the oil in the power steering, and include this in your routines for periodic checks.
• Check the steering worm. Make sure the hoses that go into the steering worm are secure and that nothing looks strange or crooked. Also check for play. The steering worm can be checked by opening the grill.
• If the power steering is broken, you will notice it right away. But you can check if it is working properly: turn the steering wheel carefully with the engine off. Then turn the engine on. The steering wheel should become easier to turn immediately.
• You can check for free play in the steering wheel while driving in a place where you can turn exactly as you want: drive straight ahead, then turn the steering wheel as far as it will go, both ways. Pay attention to the driving – it should be smooth and without noise.
• Another test of the free play can be done when the car is stationary and the engine is off. Turn the steering wheel, back and forth, with small movements. Feel that the wheels move even if the steering wheel movement is small. If you can rock the steering wheel without the wheels moving, there is free play. There should be no more than 2–4 cm of free play.
• You should also check the directional stability. Drive straight ahead and release the steering wheel gently. The truck should not pull to either side when you release the steering wheel. If you release the steering wheel while cornering, the steering wheel should straighten out.

3. The vehicle

3.3 Wheels, tires and chains (1/5)

Truck wheels

The wheels of a truck are subjected to great stress. They must be able to carry the vehicle and load on various types of surfaces. The great forces at play during braking, acceleration and driving wear out the tires, and place strict demands on quality.

Now we will look at:

• Tire marking
• Air pressure
• Wheel bearing
• Pattern depth
• Studded tires
• Chain

Tire marking

All tires must have tire markings that describe the tire's load capacity, size and area of ​​use.

What is the width and height of the deck?

An important part of the marking is the one that tells you about the tire size. It is important to know how to measure the height and width of a tire:

The width of the tire is the width of the rubber, when the tire is viewed from the front. The height of the tire is the height from the ground up to where the rim starts. The rim diameter is the diameter of the rim itself, without the rubber around it.

Width, height and aspect ratio

295/80 tells you the size of the tire. 295 is the width of the tire in millimeters. 80 is something called the aspect ratio. This is the height of the tire in relation to its width, expressed as a percentage. In this case, the height is 80 percent of the stated width.

Radial tires, bias tires and rim diameter

R stands for radial tire. This says something about how the cord layers in the tire are arranged. The cord layers are the material the tire is built from, and which is hidden under the rubber. In a radial tire, the long side of the cord layers is in the same direction as the wheel spins. This is the most common type of tire.

22.5 is the rim diameter, stated in inches.

M+S

M+S is a type of tire. M+S stands for mud and snow, and these are winter tires. On this tire it is extra clear, as it says winter.

Load Index and speed index

143/141 J says something about load and speed. 143 and 141 are both so-called LI values. LI stands for Load Index. The vehicle registration document states the minimum LI requirement for the vehicle's tires. The first number, here 143, applies if the tire is used as a single wheel. The second number, 141, is if the tire is part of a dual wheel.

How heavy a vehicle can be driven with tires that have an LI of 143 or 141 can be checked in a Load Index table.

J indicates the maximum speed of the tire. J is a speed index, which means 100 km/h.

3-peak

Another marking that can be found on tires is the 3 peak mountain snowflake symbol. This means that the tire is a certified winter tire. Vehicles with a permissible total weight of over 3500 kg must have the 3 peak mountain snowflake on the drive axles and front steering axles. On the other axles, tires marked 3 peak mountain snowflake, or Mud and Snow, can be used.

3 peak tires are often abbreviated to 3PMSF or 3PMS.

The trolley card

Section 12 of the vehicle registration document contains information about the type of tires the vehicle must have. The vehicle registration document in the picture belongs to a vehicle that must have a minimum LI of 158 on the front axle, 150 on the next axle and 150 on the last axle. The minimum speed of the tires is K, which is 110 km/h.

We can also see what the standard tires are for the different axles: axle 1 should have tires with a width of 315 mm, and the height should be 80 percent of that – that is, 252 mm. The tire should be a radial tire, with a rim of 22.5 inches in diameter.

The letters S and T stand for single wheel and twin wheel.

Tables – Load index and speed index

Load index refers to a given load capacity, stated in kilograms. You can see what the different LI can withstand here. You can see the speed index here.

Diameter

Diameter is the longest path across a curve:

Twin wheels

Two wheels right next to each other. An axle with twin mounting therefore has 4 wheels in total.

Load index

Table of Load Index and endurance in kilograms.

Speed ​​index

Table of speeds represented by different speed ratings. Speed ​​ratings are used on tire labels.

Air pressure

Air pressure is also important. To achieve optimal traction, tires must have the air pressure they are intended to have.

You can find the correct tire pressure in your vehicle's owner's manual. Air pressure is given in bar, psi, kg/cm2 or kPa.

It has been decided internationally that we should switch to using only kPa. But this will take time, and for the time being you will encounter several of these terms.

How do you check if the tires have the correct air pressure?

You can use an air pump both to fill air and to check air pressure. When you put the air pump on the valve on the tire, the pressure gauge on the pump will respond immediately, and the arrow on the gauge will show what the pressure is. You should check the air pressure every 14 days.

Many new vehicles have automatic tire pressure monitoring that alerts you if something is wrong with the air pressure. You will be notified of the error on the display or warning lights in the cab.

Another thing you should check regularly, which can also reveal incorrect air pressure, is the wear on the tires. Tires with incorrect air pressure wear faster, and they wear unevenly. When the tire wears unevenly, it can cause spots and patterns in certain places. Where the tire is worn can tell you something about what is wrong with the air pressure.

What does the wear pattern mean?

• Wear in the middle of the tire tread indicates that the tire pressure is too high.
• Wear on both sides of the tire indicates that the air pressure is too low.
• Spotted wear indicates faulty shock absorbers or imbalance in tires and rims.
• Wear on one side of the tire indicates incorrect wheel alignment.
• Wear on a large, limited area, a bit like a spot, indicates that the wheel is blocking too much when braking.

Tire tread

The part of the tire's surface that is in direct contact with the road. When everything is in order with the tire, the surface of the tread wears evenly.

Tire wear

Tire wear

Air pressure

Incorrect air pressure causes wear on the tires. Tires have maximum life if they are at the correct pressure. Low air pressure will also increase fuel costs, because rolling resistance increases.

If the tires are 20 percent too high in pressure, their lifespan will be 90 percent of their normal lifespan. If the tires are 20 percent too low in pressure, their lifespan will be 85 percent of their normal lifespan. If the pressure is 60 percent too low, their lifespan will only be 25 percent of their normal lifespan.

Speed

High speed wears out the tires.

It varies how much a tire can withstand, but a tire that has a maximum lifespan at a speed of 55 km/h only has 60 percent of this lifespan if driven at 100 km/h.

Of course, you shouldn't drive at 55 km/h all the time - this is just an example, to show the importance of speed.

3. The vehicle

3.3 Wheels, tires and chains (2/5)

Wheel bearing

Where the wheel is attached to the axle is a wheel bearing.

One of the tasks of the wheel bearing is to reduce the friction that occurs between the wheel and the axle when the wheel spins. You don't want friction - it creates resistance and heat.

Slack

If there is play in the wheel bearing, or between the wheel bearing and the axle, the wheel bearing cannot eliminate the friction. On the contrary, play like this can lead to vibrations and overheating – and this can develop into a fire. Truck fires often start in a damaged wheel bearing.

To avoid this, regular checks must be carried out.

3. The vehicle

3.3 Wheels, tires and chains (3/5)

Tire construction

The tire is made up of cord layers and rubber. The cord layers are woven pieces of steel wire or fiber, and this is what gives the tire its grip.

Radial tires

There are many ways to lay the cord layers. Most trucks use tires where the cord layers are mainly on the tire's tread, so-called radial tires. The cord layers lie with their long sides along the tread, and do not cover the entire width of the tire. This makes it softer on the side, and has better grip in corners.

Tires where the cord layers run along the width of the tire are called bias-ply tires.

Radial tires.

Low profile tires

Low profile tires are a type of radial tire.

Profile

The tire's profile is the height as a percentage of its width. A 100-profile tire is as tall as it is wide, and on a 55-profile tire, the height is 55 percent of the width. A low profile means that something is much wider than it is tall. A wheel with a low profile tire will therefore appear low and wide.

The advantages of low-profile tires are that they weigh less and provide lower rolling resistance. Many heavy vehicles have low-profile tires.

Deck height and width

3. The vehicle

3.3 Wheels, tires and chains (4/5)

Seasons

There are many different types of tires, and many regulations related to the use of tires. You need to know the rules for studded tires, winter tires, chains, and tread depth requirements.

Northern Norway

• From November 15th to March 31st, you must have winter tires. On drive axles and front steering axles, tires marked 3 peak mountain snowflake must be used. On the other axles, tires marked 3 peak mountain snowflake or Mud and Snow can be used.
• From October 16th to April 30th, you must drive with tires that have at least 5 mm of tread depth and have chains in your car. During this same period, studded tires are legal.

Rules for Northern Norway

The rest of Norway

• From November 15th to March 31st, you must have winter tires. On drive axles and front steering axles, tires marked 3 peak mountain snowflake must be used. On the other axles, tires marked 3 peak mountain snowflake, or Mud and Snow, can be used.
• From November 1st until the first Monday after Easter Monday, you must have snow chains in your car.
• From November 1st until the first Sunday after Easter Monday, you must have at least 5 mm tread depth.

Rules for the rest of Norway

Pattern depth

The tread depth is how deep the grooves in the tire pattern are. This has a lot to do with grip. Too little tread depth can lead to poor grip, an increased risk of aquaplaning and increased braking distance. Therefore, it is not safe to drive with too little tread depth.

Checking tread depth

The tread depth is easily checked by looking at the tires. If the tire is very worn, it is easy to see, but if not, a depth gauge is useful. A depth gauge is a small ruler that you insert into the tread groove. The requirements for tread depth are:

• Summer tires must have a tread depth of at least 1.6 mm.
• There is a requirement for a 5 mm tread depth from October 16 to April 30 in Northern Norway, and from November 1 to the first Sunday after Easter Monday in the rest of Norway.

Depth gauge.

Wear indicators

Many tires have so-called tread wear indicators. Tread wear indicators are numbers engraved into the rubber, such as 100, 60 and 40. To check the wear, look at the highest visible number. This number shows how many percent of the original tread depth is left. For example: if 60 is the highest visible number, there is 60 percent of the tread depth left.

Wear indicators. The 100% number has worn away. But 80, 60 and 40 remain. This means that at least 80% of the tread depth remains.

Can the tire be used?

The quality of a tire is not only dependent on air pressure, tread depth and surface wear. You must always make a comprehensive assessment of the tire before using it.

Is the tire safe and is it suitable for your truck?

Hydroplaning

Aquaplaning occurs when there is so much water between the tire and the road that the tire does not make contact with the road. The tire floats on the water and you lose control of the vehicle.

The likelihood of aquaplaning increases with worn tire tread and at higher speeds.

Studded tires

Studded tires are very harmful to the environment, and it is only allowed to use studded tires during the studded tire season.

All your wheels do not have to have studded tires, but wheels on the same axle must be the same. This means that if you have studded tires on the left rear wheel, you must also have studded tires on the right rear wheel. If you have twin wheels, it is enough to have studded tires on one of the twin wheels, so a total of two studded tires on one axle.

Winter tires both with and without studs.

The studded tire period

• Nordland and Troms and Finnmark: from October 16th to April 30th.
• The rest of the country: from November 1st until the first Sunday after Easter Monday.

You can have studded tires outside of the studded tire period, if necessary for safe driving.

Chain

During the period when chains are required in the car, you must have at least 3 chains: one of them must be adapted to the front wheel, and two must be adapted to the rear wheel. But when you are going to put on chains, you choose which ones to use. There are no rules about how many to use, or where to use them. But you MUST ensure good road grip. When it is wintery, chains are often the only thing that can get you up a steep hill.

You must have chains in your car even outside the chain period, if you can expect slippery roads.

Putting on a chain

Putting on chains can be tricky and difficult – and it often has to be done in cold and bad weather. But chains are very important, and dropping them can be both expensive and dangerous.

If you are going to put on chains to get up or down a hill, it is important that you put them on before the hill. It is too late if you have started driving and are in the middle of the hill – then the entire truck can slide off. This can lead to road closures, damaged cargo and danger to yourself and others.

Before long hills there is often a chain area where you can put on chains without getting in the way of traffic.

Think safety

It is important to think about safety when putting on chains. If you do not have a place to put chains and have to stop on the side of the road, you must leave your parking lights and hazard lights on. You must also wear a reflective vest.

It is also important to position yourself so that you do not get trapped if the truck starts to slide.

3. The vehicle

3.3 Wheels, tires and chains (5/5)

Putting on a chain

There are a number of different types of chain. Remember to practice with the type you are going to use.

Alternatives to regular chain

Automatic chain

Automatic chains, or one spot as they are called, are activated from the driver's seat with a switch. When activated, a small sprocket will be lowered, so that it comes into contact with the inside of the tire. The friction causes the sprocket to rotate and creates enough centrifugal force to throw the chains out and under the tire. This means that there is always a chain between the tire and the ground, and that the grip is improved.

Automatic chains work at speeds of up to 50 km/h, and they are approved as chains.

Sand spreader

This is a small box located in front of each drive wheel, which is operated directly from the driver's seat. There is usually one button per spreader. Sand spreaders can be convenient, but they also have disadvantages. If you forget to fill them up, they are of no use, and not even if the sand is frozen.

Checking and maintaining wheels and chains

Check for tears, cuts and other damage in the tires. Check for wear in the tire tread, and see if the wear can tell you what is wrong. Also check that the tires have the correct air pressure.

If your vehicle has twin wheels, the air pressure should be checked daily, on all four wheels. You can do this by hitting the wheels with a hammer and listening to the sound. All wheels should sound exactly the same. If one wheel sounds different, it probably has the wrong air pressure. When you have twin wheels, you must also check that there are no stones between the wheels in a pair of wheels.

If you have newly fitted tyres, the lug nuts must be re-tightened after approximately 50 km of driving. This is very important. Check the instruction manual for the amount of force you should apply to the lug nut wrench when tightening.

You can detect tire imbalance during normal driving. The car will then make noises and abnormal vibrations.

Tire tread

The part of the tire's surface that is in direct contact with the road. When everything is in order with the tire, the surface of the tread wears evenly.

Twin wheels

Two wheels right next to each other. An axle with twin mounting therefore has 4 wheels in total.

3. The vehicle

3.4 Engine and drivetrain (1/4)

The truck's engine

The vast majority of trucks have a diesel engine. The engine is located under the truck's cabin.

Four strokes

Heavy vehicles usually have four-stroke engines. They are called four-stroke engines because the engine works in four stages.

A diesel engine.

Cylinder

These four steps take place inside the cylinders, and all cylinders perform the same four strokes – but at different times. The strokes are the intake stroke, the compression stroke, the power stroke and the exhaust stroke.

The strokes cause the piston in the cylinder to move up and down, creating mechanical force.

Step 1: Intake stroke

The piston moves down into the cylinder. Air is sucked in from an open valve at the top.

Step 2: Compression stroke

The valve that sucked the air in is closed.

The piston goes up. And since the air can't escape, it gets compressed. When air is compressed very much, it becomes compressed air. And air at very high pressure gets very hot. The compressed air in the piston gets over 700°c.

Finally, in stage 2, diesel enters the cylinder. The diesel is sprayed in from a nozzle at the top of the cylinder.

Step 3: Work rate

The temperature of the compressed air is so high that the diesel starts to burn. This increases the pressure in the cylinder, and the piston is pushed down.

Step 4: Blow-out rate

Now there is burnt compressed air inside the cylinder. This is exhaust.

Then the piston moves up, forcing the exhaust out of a valve. The exhaust is released from the vehicle.

How do pistons create force?

The pistons are arranged in a row inside the engine. The pistons are connected together by being all attached to the same crankshaft, which is rotated by the pistons.

Crankshaft.

All the pistons work in the four strokes, but not at the same time. At any given time, one of the pistons is being pushed down by the diesel ignition, which in turn rotates the crankshaft so that the other pistons are also pushed up or down. The pistons that are pushed up will either be in stroke 2 and compressing air, or be in stroke 4 and pushing out exhaust. The pistons that are being pushed down are either in stroke 3 with the ignition, or in stroke 1 with air intake.

1. diesel ignition. 2. exhaust is pushed out. 3. air is compressed. 4. new air is taken in.

The diesel creates mechanical power

It is the ignition, i.e. the diesel, that causes the piston to be pressed down, and helps the other pistons to move. It is the diesel that is converted into mechanical power, and thus drives the crankshaft.

Why is the car moving forward?

The pistons make the crankshaft rotate. The crankshaft makes the countershaft rotate, which in turn makes the driveshaft rotate. When the driveshaft rotates, the wheels rotate. This is how the vehicle moves forward.

The intermediate shaft connects the front machinery with the differential and rear axle. It is very powerful.

The drivetrain

Here is a video of parts of the drivetrain. The pistons rotate the countershaft, and the countershaft's rotation is transferred to the rear driveshaft. When this rotates, the wheels rotate.

3. The vehicle

3.4 Engine and drive train (2/4)

Diesel

The vast majority of trucks run on diesel. Diesel is made from crude oil.

Diesel and cold

When diesel gets cold enough, wax crystals form in the diesel. The wax crystals can clog the fuel system, preventing diesel from reaching the pistons. The car then stalls. There are many measures to prevent this from happening. Diesel manufacturers add substances that prevent the wax from clumping and allowing it to pass through. Some trucks have electrically heated diesel filters, which prevent wax clumps from forming at all.

In addition, diesel is produced that is more resistant to cold, known as winter diesel. It contains less wax than the type used in the summer, known as summer diesel. Winter diesel and summer diesel have different cloud points and blocking points.

• The cloud point of diesel is the temperature at which the diesel becomes hazy and cloudy, because the wax has begun to separate from the diesel. Hazy diesel can be used.
• The blocking point is the temperature at which wax clumps become so large that they can block a diesel system. At that point, the diesel cannot be used. In theory, the diesel can be used if it is warmer than the specified blocking point.

Summer diesel has a blocking point of -12°. There are two types of winter diesel: one that can withstand -24°, for areas with mild winters, and one that can withstand -32°, for areas with cold winters. It is not dangerous to mix summer diesel and winter diesel, but winter diesel with summer diesel in it will of course not withstand as much cold as pure winter diesel.

There is also one that is even more resistant, called light diesel. It can be used in temperatures down to -50°.

Winter diesel all year round?

Winter diesel can be used all year round. However, because winter diesel is added with substances that make it more resistant to cold, it costs more than summer diesel. Most people prefer to use summer diesel during the summer months.

Diesel tank

Diesel system

Here we will look at how the cylinders get diesel from the diesel tank.

It is the combustion of fuel in the cylinders that makes the car move forward. In order for the engine to stay within the strict emission requirements, the engine must be efficient, making as much power with as little fuel as possible. To achieve this, the injectors must inject the right amount of fuel, at exactly the right time.

The fuel system is mainly pumps, valves and pipes attached to the engine itself. On all modern trucks, the system is electronically controlled.

Here is a Scania engine. The feed pump and diesel filter are marked purple.

Feed pump, diesel filter and injection pump

The engine has a feed pump that sucks in diesel from the diesel tank. The feed pump sends the diesel through a filter, which removes condensation from the diesel. The diesel then goes up to an injection pump. The injection pump is an intelligent high-pressure pump that supplies diesel to the cylinders depending on how hard the accelerator pedal is pressed.

Feed pump at the bottom right, and diesel filter at the top.

Bleeding the diesel system

If you run the tank empty, the feed pump sucks air in between the tank and the nozzles. You should fill up often enough to avoid this. But if air gets into the system, it must be removed. This is called bleeding the diesel system. Some trucks have automatic bleeding – and then you don’t have to bleed the system yourself.

Procedure

If your truck has a fuel system that needs to be bled, you will need to do this every time the tank runs out. You will need to refer to your truck's owner's manual for instructions on how to bleed the diesel system - but a general procedure is:

• Raise the cab so that the engine is accessible. Look in the instruction manual and find out where the bleed screw and hand pump are. The bleed screw is usually on the diesel filter, and the hand pump is a button or a bellows that is located on the feed pump. In some trucks, the injection pump also needs to be bled, and then this also has a bleed screw. This is described in the instruction manual.
• Turn on the ignition.
• Open the bleed screw on the diesel filter.
• Use the pump. When the pump is operated, diesel should come out of the bleed screw. Pump until clean diesel comes out, without foam or air bubbles.
• Then try to start the engine.
• If it doesn't start, bleed the injection pump, if your truck has an injection pump that needs to be bled. If it doesn't, try bleeding again with the same bleed screw.

In your truck's owner's manual, you can see if your fuel system needs to be bled and where the bleed valves are located on the engine.

Air screw on the diesel filter.

Hand pump on the feed pump.

Drains diesel tank

Condensation can form in the fuel tank. The condensation water enters the system with the diesel and can cause damage. Water in the injection pump and frozen condensation water can cause the engine to stop working because the engine is not getting diesel. The water must be drained away.

To drain the fuel system, open a valve at the bottom of the tank. Water is heavier than diesel, so the water sits at the bottom of the tank. That's why this is what flows out when the valve is opened. It's smart to drain just before you fill up, so when the tank is not completely full.

Water in the diesel system can also lead to something called diesel animals.

Diesel animal

Diesel grime is a type of sludge that develops inside the diesel tank. The sludge consists of microbes such as fungi, yeasts and bacteria that have entered and feed on the diesel oil. The diesel grime carries the diesel further into the system and can clog the diesel filters.

The smallest microbes also get through the filters and can clog the nozzles in the engine cylinders.

Diesel animals get good growth conditions from condensation water, and depend on it to grow into sludge. Removing the condensation by draining the tank makes it much more difficult for the diesel animals.

Diesel filter.

3. The vehicle

3.4 Engine and drive train (3/4)

Exhaust control

Large parts of the engine are a closed system, which you cannot check with a visual inspection. However, you can notice faults in the engine by feeling how it behaves, sounds or by looking at what comes out of it – the exhaust.

There should be no smoke in the exhaust when the engine is at operating temperature. If there is, the color of the smoke can tell you what is wrong:

• White smoke: often caused by water in the exhaust. If the engine is not warm, it is normal to have white smoke or steam in the exhaust.
• Blue smoke: if there is oil in the exhaust, it can turn blue. Oil in the exhaust can come from worn piston rings, or general engine wear.
• Black smoke: there can be many causes of black smoke. It could be that the pistons are getting too much diesel at a time, or that the pistons are not able to burn up all the diesel. It could also be a fault in something called the turbocharger, or a clogged air filter.

Visual inspection

Visual control means controlling something by looking at it.

For example, car lights can be checked visually by turning on the car, getting out, and seeing if they are on.

Piston ring

The piston rings go around the pistons. They ensure that there is a complete seal between the cylinder and the piston.

Engine oil

You need to check the engine oil level every day before you drive. The oil also needs to be changed regularly – oil loses important properties over time. Engine oil has many important tasks:

• Lubricate – lubrication ensures less wear on engine parts.
• Cooling – the oil helps keep the temperature in the engine down.
• Cleansing – the oil can remove dirt and grime.
• Tight – in areas where it should be tight, such as in the cylinders, the oil can seal small gaps.
• Dampening – the oil can dampen impacts between components inside the engine.

Different types of oil

You can see what kind of oil your truck should use in your truck's owner's manual. Engine oil also comes in different thicknesses. The colder it is, the thinner the oil you should use.

3. The vehicle

3.4 Engine and drivetrain (4/4)

Give

Trucks have many more gears than passenger cars. Trucks vary in weight depending on what they are loaded with, and they are generally very heavy. In order for them to move efficiently, it is important that the forces in the drive wheels can be adapted to any situation. It is the gearing that adapts the forces.

The gearbox changes rotation speed

In the gearbox, there are gears that determine how much rotation is transferred from the crankshaft to the intermediate shaft. This is controlled from the cab, using the gear lever.

Operating the gear

There are many different transmission systems, and you should always familiarize yourself with the transmission system of the car you are going to drive. Here we will look at how different types of transmissions are operated from the driver's seat.

Range

The truck has more gears than the passenger car, often up to 30. These gears are often divided into "stages". This is called range. The stages work as follows:

When you are in 6th gear and want to go up to 7th gear, you press a button on the gear lever. The button changes gears 1–6 to 7–12. You can then move the gear lever to what was previously 1st gear and is now 7th gear. You may recognize this principle from bicycles, which often have 21 gears spread over 3 levels.

The picture below shows an example of a gear lever in a truck with a range function. It only has 3 regular forward gears per floor. When you are in 3rd gear, you press the range button and can go back to 1st gear, which has now become 4th gear.

C stands for crawl, and is a crawler gear. This gear is intended for driving at very low speeds. The truck also has two reverse gears, one that is high and one that is low.

Range.

Split

Another system that gives the truck more gears is the split system.

The split system divides each gear into a high and a low gear. For example, you can have the car in 5th gear high split, or 6th gear low split. This is also called half gear. High and low gear are controlled by a switch.

Many trucks have both split and range.

The order

High and low gears come one after the other – they are not divided into two levels like the range system is. The order is therefore:

• low 1.
• high 1.
• low 2.
• high 2.
• low 3.
• high 3. And so on...

Here there is both split and range.

Electronic gear shifting

The engine, countershaft and gears work together to rotate the wheels with the desired power for any situation. The gears adapt the wheels' torque and acceleration capabilities. For example, many trucks have crawler gears, which provide a lot of power at low speeds.

The power of a truck’s propulsion is very important for the job it does – so truck manufacturers are constantly introducing new technology in this area. Most trucks now come with electronic gear shifting, which adjusts the power of the drive according to what is economical and efficient. RPM, speed and load are monitored, and the electronic gear shifting changes gears without you having to do anything.

Volvo I-shift gearbox

3. The vehicle

3.5 Brake and brake circuit (1/10)

Brakes

Many of the braking mechanisms in a truck are inaccessible to a heavy-duty truck driver – and you are not expected to repair or check the entire braking system.

But it is important that you know how the brakes work. This will help you to recognize errors or unusual things, and you will feel more confident in handling the brakes. Working brakes are very important for road safety – and if the brakes are handled incorrectly, it can be very dangerous.

Brake circuit

A brake circuit is the entire braking mechanism, from the pedal, handbrake or other release, and out to the wheels that are being braked.

Multiple brake circuits

The service brake, also known as the foot brake, is the brake that is applied by pressing the pedal with your foot. The service brake consists of two brake circuits. The two brake circuits are independent of each other – so if one of the circuits fails, the other can brake the vehicle alone. This provides increased safety. Vehicle regulations require that all trucks have a dual-circuit service brake.

Most trucks have three circuits that brake:

• a circuit for the front axle
• a circuit for the rear axle
• a parking brake circuit

Braking force

If you are rolling a ball across a table, you can slow it down or stop it completely by touching it. This stops the ball directly with your own force.

Foreign power

You can't stop a truck on its own. It stops when you press the pedal – but the pedal is just a valve that starts other forces. These forces are created in the brake system. That's why it's said that the truck has a brake system that uses external force to stop the car.

The ball is stopped under its own power.

Brake circuit

In the brake system there are hoses through which compressed air moves.

Compressed air is compressed air. Exactly how compressed it is, i.e. how high the pressure is, is measured in the units of measurement bar or kPa. You can recognize these units of measurement from the truck's tires, which also contain compressed air.

The compressed air goes through thick hoses that are attached to the frame.

3. The vehicle

3.5 Brake and brake circuit (2/10)

Common feeder part

We will first look at the part of the brake circuit called the common supply section. It is common to all three circuits: front brake, rear brake and parking brake. The common supply section receives compressed air from the compressor and supplies it to the circuits.

Here the common feeder part is colored.

We start at the front of the car, where the air for the compressed air system enters.

Air filter: Cleans the air that is sucked in.

Compressor: The compressor takes in air and compresses it. The air then becomes compressed air.

Air dryer: There is a pipe running between the compressor and the air dryer. It is running to give the compressed air a longer distance to travel to the air dryer. This allows the compressed air to cool down. In the air dryer, the water in the compressed air is removed.

Pressure regulator: The air inside these pipes should be under pressure – but it is important that the pressure is not too low or too high. This compressed air regulator ensures that the air has the right pressure: it can turn the compressor on and off, and thus choose when the air should be compressed more and when it should not.

Safety valve: If the compressed air regulator stops working, the pressure in the brake system can become too high. It can then burst. The safety valve ensures that this does not happen: the valve releases air if it senses that the air pressure is too high. Some trucks have the safety valve on top of what is called the wet tank.

One-way valve: The one-way valve is the entrance to the tank system, and this valve ensures that the compressed air only enters, and not exits, the tanks.

Wet tank: If the air dryer does not work, moisture will build up in the wet tank. It can be emptied using a valve underneath. New trucks do not have a wet tank.

Safety valve: The safety valve, or multi-circuit valve as it is also called, is connected to all brake circuits. When the truck has normal pressure in the circuits, i.e. between 7 and 12 bar, all brake circuits share air. This means that they are not shut off from each other.

The safety valve shuts off the circuits from each other when the pressure in one of the circuits drops to 6 bar. This ensures that a leak in one circuit does not empty the entire system of air.

Compressed air tanks: Compressed air for use in the brake system is stored here.

Feed part front axle

From the compressed air tanks, the compressed air goes to various brake circuits. We'll start with the circuit for the front axle.

Feed part front axle.

The first part after the compressed air tank is the front axle's own supply section. Here you will find the pressure gauge, foot brake valve and pedal.

Pressure gauge: The pressure gauge shows the air pressure inside the pipe. The pressure gauge is visible from the driver's cab.

Foot brake valve: The foot brake valve can close and release air. It is activated by the brake pedal.

Feed part front axle.

The foot brake valve

The foot brake valve closes the brake circuit, stopping the compressed air.

When the brake pedal is pressed, the valve opens and the compressed air passes through, allowing it to move towards the brakes and activate them.

In modern trucks, the air is not retained at the pre-brake valve, but at a valve right next to the brake. The brake pedal is then used to send an electronic signal to the valve to let air into the brake and activate it.

This is called an electronically controlled braking system.

Front axle control unit

On the other side of the foot brake valve is the front axle's operating part. This is the part through which the air passes when it is supposed to activate the brakes, when the brake is applied. The operating part has a quick-release valve and a brake bell.

The front axle control section is marked in yellow.

Brake calipers: The brake caliper is what activates and deactivates the brakes with compressed air. When the pedal is depressed, air enters the brake caliper and the brake is activated. All wheels have a brake caliper.

The quick release valve: When you release the brake pedal to deactivate the brake, the air disappears from the brake caliper. It is the quick release valve that releases the air from the brake caliper, emptying it in 0.1 second.

Front axle control unit

3. The vehicle

3.5 Brake and brake circuit (3/10)

Rear axle

The rear axle brake circuit works exactly the same as the front axle brake circuit. However, it has some instruments that the front axle does not have.

Feeder part rear axle

In this picture you can see the air tanks, and the supply part for the rear axle. The supply part for the rear axle comes out of the air tank that belongs to the rear axle. The supply part goes forward in the car, and splits into two. One pipe goes to a pressure gauge, and the other goes to the foot brake valve. Just like the brake circuit for the front axle.

Feed part rear axle.

Rear axle control unit

The control part of the rear axle starts from the foot brake valve. It goes back to the rear of the car, to something called ALB.

ALB stands for Automatic Load-Dependent Brake Force Regulator. It's smart to have:

The brakes in these brake circuits are very strong. If the car is empty and weighs little, they can almost be too strong. They become so strong that the car stops abruptly as soon as you press the pedal. ALB ensures that the braking force is adjusted to the weight of the car. It does this by measuring the axle load on the rear axle.

ALB is not mandatory for cars that have ABS brakes – but all Swedish-made cars have ALB.

Quick release valve: This is the same type of valve as the one on the front axle brake circuit. It ensures that the compressed air quickly escapes from the brake caliper.

Rear axle control part.

ABS

ABS brakes are brakes that slow down a vehicle without the wheels locking up throughout the braking distance. That is: the brake is switched on and off many times during braking. This allows the vehicle to be controlled during braking.

You cannot drive a vehicle with locked wheels.

Foot brake valve and brake bell

As mentioned – when the foot brake is pressed, compressed air comes from the feed part, through the control part and out towards the brakes.

The brake bell

The compressed air goes into a brake bell. The brake bell is located on the brake mechanism on the wheel. All wheels have a brake bell with a service brake, and on the rear wheels the brake bell also has a parking brake. It is such a bell that we will look at now.

The brake caliper has one chamber for the service brake and one for the parking brake. During normal driving, there is air in the parking brake and no air in the service brake.

Service brake chamber on the left, and parking brake chamber on the right.

When you press the foot brake pedal, air enters the service brake chamber. The air pushes on the service brake piston, and a push rod pushes the brake pad onto the brake disc.

This is what a brake caliper looks like on a modern Scania. The brake caliper is mounted on the caliper, which sits inside the center of the tire. Here we can also see the wires that make up the brake circuit.

Service brake

3. The vehicle

3.5 Brake and brake circuit (4/10)

Parking brake

We have now looked at the brake circuit for the front axle and rear axle. The third brake circuit is the parking brake, which we will now look at. It also consists of a feed part and a control part.

The service brake is activated by compressed air. The parking brake is different, because it is deactivated by compressed air. It is activated when there is no air in the brake bell or circuit.

Feed part parking brake

One-way valve: when the air is to leave the tank, it must pass through a one-way valve, which ensures that the air only goes out, and not in.

Filling valve: the filling valve allows you to fill the circuit with air, for example in an emergency where the circuit is empty and the compressor is broken. It can also be used to remove air from the circuit, for example to fill the tires.

Shut-off valve: also called a blocking valve. This valve is designed to ensure that the parking brake does not disengage when the car is started and pressure builds up. The valve is accessible from the driver's seat, and the driver must open this valve to disengage the parking brake.

Parking brake lever: this is the lever that the driver uses inside the cab.

Parking brake control unit

The parking brake control goes from the P-brake lever to the brake caliper on the rear wheel.

Parking brake control part in red.

Parking brake bell

As we saw on the previous page: during normal driving there is air in the parking brake, and no air in the service brake. The parking brake must have air in order to be off.

Parking brake chamber on the right.

To apply the parking brake, the chamber must be emptied of air. This is what happens when you use the P-brake lever.

Brake bell without any compressed air.

The parking brake should therefore be on when the car and the brake caliper are out of air. It is the vehicle regulations that stipulate that the truck must have brakes that work without air. This is to ensure that the truck has brakes to use, even if the air system is damaged.

Parking brake

Foreign power

Now that we've looked at the brake circuits, we can get back to the alien force.

As mentioned, a pneumatic mechanical braking system is based on external force. This means that you do not use your own force to brake.

The external force that brakes for you is compressed air. All you have to do is open valves so that the compressed air can reach the brakes. The pedal and brake lever are such valves.

When you open the valve with the pedal, compressed air comes in and brakes.

Brake pressure overview

In modern trucks, you can monitor the air pressure in the brake circuits on a display in the cab. In this picture, you can see that the air pressure in brake circuits 1 and 2 is 11 bar, and that it is within the green area. The green area shows what is sufficient pressure in the brake circuit.

The air pressure in the parking brake circuit is 8.5 bar, which is also sufficient pressure.

This overview has the same function as a pressure gauge.

3. The vehicle

3.5 Brake and brake circuit (5/10)

How are the wheels braked?

The goal of the braking system that we have now gone through is, of course, to slow down the wheels, so the truck loses speed. There are two common brakes for trucks:

• Disc brake
• Drum brake

Both types of brakes slow the wheels using brake pads.

The brake disc on a disc brake. Disc brakes are the most common type of brakes.

Disc brake

Most trucks have disc brakes. On a disc brake, the brake pads push against a disc that is mounted on the wheel.

The brake disc sits between two brake pads, inside a caliper. The caliper presses the brake pads onto the brake disc, thereby slowing down the wheel.

Drum brake

Drum brakes are not very common on new trucks in Norway, but they are often used on trailers. In drum brakes, the brake pads are pushed outwards on a drum that is attached to the wheel.

The drum has been removed, and the curved brake pads are clearly visible.

Drum brakes are much heavier than disc brakes. They are also more demanding to maintain – for example, it is much easier to change brake pads on a disc brake. And because the brake mechanism is inside a closed drum, it heats up easily.

3. The vehicle

3.5 Brake and brake circuit (6/10)

Auxiliary brakes

If you brake a lot in a short time, the brake pad can become worn. The coating can melt, destroying the friction between the pad and the disc. This is called glazing. The brakes can also overheat and start to burn.

This brake pad is glazed.

On long downhill slopes, trucks have to brake a lot. To prevent glazing or overheating, the truck has auxiliary brakes, which can relieve the load on the brake pads.

There are different types of auxiliary brakes, and it is important to know the auxiliary brakes of the truck you are driving. Modern trucks automatically switch between which brakes they use. If you are driving an older truck, you have to switch between which brake you are using yourself.

Auxiliary braking works best at high revs.

Engine brake

Engine braking is also called exhaust braking. The brake closes or restricts the release of exhaust from the cylinders, so that the pressure in the cylinders increases. This means that the working speed of the cylinders is lower, and the effect of the engine is lower. In some modern trucks, you can turn on the engine braking by lightly pressing the brake pedal.

This is what the mechanism in the exhaust brake looks like. The lid can be opened and closed.

Electromagnetic brake

Electromagnetic brake is a set of brake discs around the countershaft, controlled by electromagnetism. This brake is powerful, but it can become very hot with use. As electric drive becomes more common for heavy vehicles, electromagnetic brake systems may become more important. They can also act as a dynamo. A dynamo creates electricity from motion, which is useful in an electric-powered car.

An electromagnetic brake is located on the intermediate shaft and slows down the rotation.

Oil retarders

Oil retarders are also called turbine brakes, or simply retarders. This brake is quite common. It is attached to the countershaft, right next to the gearbox.

The retarder is between the gearbox and the countershaft.

When you turn on the retarder, compressed air enters an oil chamber in the retarder. The oil is then forced out of the chamber and into a rotor that is connected to the countershaft. The oil slows down, or decelerates, the speed of the countershaft so that the wheels spin more slowly.

The retarder can also ensure that the truck maintains the same speed at all times.

The retarder is very effective, but it can get hot. The driver is then notified and can turn off the retarder from the cab.

Lever for turning the retarder on and off.

Smooth road!

If you are driving on slippery roads, it is a good idea to turn off the automatic auxiliary brakes. On slippery roads, it is a good idea to have full control over the speed and the power in the drive shaft.

Dangers of using the auxiliary brake

It is important not to overuse the truck's brakes. You should not drive in a way that requires you to brake and accelerate constantly.

You also need to limit the use of the auxiliary brakes – it is not good for either the brakes or the vehicle if they are used too much:

• If the driver uses the auxiliary brake lever much more than the brake pedal, the action can become automated. The driver will then likely also use the auxiliary brake in an emergency, when it would actually have been smarter to use the brake pedal.
• The auxiliary brake only brakes the drive axle, which on very slippery roads can cause skidding or engine stalling. This in turn can lead to loss of power steering and loss of control.
• The electromagnetic auxiliary brake can become so hot that electrical circuits are damaged and a fire can occur.

Many trucks have auxiliary brakes that can be turned on and off as needed. You can turn off automatic auxiliary brakes if you want to control when the auxiliary brakes are used.

3. The vehicle

3.5 Brake and brake circuit (7/10)

EBS

EBS stands for Electronic Brake System, and in Norwegian we call it electronically controlled braking system. New cars have EBS.

With EBS, the compressed air valves in the brake circuit are controlled electronically. This makes the brakes work faster and enables systems such as traction control and stability programs.

Accrual period

In cars without an electronically controlled braking system, the compressed air must travel through the entire actuator and out to the brake bell when the brake is to be activated. This can take up to 1 second. This delay is called the run-in time.

The compressed air has to travel a long way to reach the brakes.

In cars with EBS, the air can be stored right next to the brake caliper and let in with an electronically controlled valve, which is operated from the brake pedal. This happens very quickly – so new cars no longer have a warm-up time.

The air is stored entirely at the wheel and released by an electronically controlled valve. Shorter distance to travel.

Other benefits of EBS

• As the brakes become faster, they also become more precise, and the brakes on the different wheels are activated exactly the same. This provides increased stability.
• The EBS monitors the wear of the brake pads and adjusts the braking force so that it is the same on all wheels, even if the wear is different.
• Hill start assist: EBS holds the brake for a short time after the brake pedal is deactivated. The vehicle is then stationary, instead of rolling backwards immediately.
• EBS reads the axle load, so the driver can see it on a panel in the cab.

3. The vehicle

3.5 Brake and brake circuit (8/10)

ABS brakes

Locked wheels, meaning wheels that do not roll, cannot steer the car. Locked wheels slide in all directions, completely independent of the direction of the wheels' rotation. Then you have no control over the vehicle.

ABS is a brake that switches on and off many times during braking, alternating between locking and free-wheeling. This allows for partial control of the vehicle during braking. ABS also prevents the vehicle from skidding due to locked wheels.

ABS stands for Anti Blockier System, and in Norwegian such brakes are called anti-lock brakes. The vast majority of vehicles in Norway have ABS brakes, and it is mandatory for trucks.

Important about ABS!

ABS does not work if you are driving below 10 km/h, nor when reversing.

Modern trucks have ABS brakes.

Use of ABS

During normal, controlled braking, the brake pad presses gently and controlled on the brake disc, slowing the wheels down or stopping them gradually. There is no need to steer while braking, so the ABS is not activated.

The ABS is only activated in situations where the wheels lock due to heavy braking – so-called emergency braking. In this case, the ABS ensures that the car can still be steered, making evasive maneuvers easier. When the wheels are rolling, there is also less likelihood of skidding.

The ABS kicks in during emergency braking and can help you steer away.

ABS only helps in emergency braking

You should drive a car with ABS in the same way you would drive a car without ABS. This means that you cannot drive faster in a corner or on slippery roads even if you have ABS. Your wheels can still slip. On dry roads, a car with ABS can actually have a longer braking distance than a car without ABS.

The point of ABS is not to save you during normal driving, but to help you during emergency braking.

How does ABS work?

ABS is just like EBS – a system that controls some of the components in the braking circuit. ABS uses the same computer as EBS, and the two systems also share several components.

The computer senses the revolutions of each wheel through sensors. When the revolutions stop due to emergency braking, the computer opens the control valve at the wheels, reducing the braking force, so that the wheel is no longer locked. Then the valve closes again, and the wheel is locked again.

Then this happens many times in succession, lightning fast, so that the wheel alternates between rolling and being locked.

ABS warning system

When you turn on the ignition, the ABS warning light on the dashboard lights up. If the warning light does not go out, there is a fault in the ABS. The brakes will still work, but the fault must be repaired as soon as possible.

If you receive a warning about a fault with the ABS brakes, the truck should not be used. You must drive carefully to the nearest workshop to have the fault rectified. If the ABS does not work, dangerous situations can arise, especially on gravel, wet or slippery roads.

A truck with a faulty ABS can skid on its semi-trailer/trailer during heavy braking, which in turn can cause a nasty head-on accident for oncoming traffic.

Inspection and maintenance

The electronic ABS circuit tests itself every time you turn on the ignition and tells you if something is wrong. All you have to do is keep an eye on the warning light. It should come on when you start the car and go out immediately. In some trucks, the light goes out when the wheels start to move forward or when the speed is above 7 km/h.

ASR

ASR stands for Anti Slip Regulation, and we call it anti-slip regulation in Norwegian.

ASR adjusts the speed of the wheels in relation to each other to improve grip. The speed is adjusted by braking the wheels or by changing the engine power.

ASR can brake wheels

If one of the drive wheels spins when the truck is about to drive, the ASR system sends air into the service brake of the wheel that is rotating the fastest. When the wheel has slowed down enough to have the same speed as the other wheel, the ASR switches off. The wheels now have the same speed, and the spinning wheel can use the torque of the other wheel to help it gain traction and move the vehicle forward. In simple terms, the system ensures that the wheels work together better.

ASR can change engine power

If the speed is above 30 km/h, the ASR adjusts the wheel speed by adjusting the engine power.

When the truck is driving, the drive wheels can start to spin when the vehicle is accelerating. In such a situation, the drive wheels will rotate faster than the free wheels that are not spinning. ASR detects this and causes the fuel injectors to reduce the fuel injection into the pistons. Engine power decreases. In such cases, ASR can adjust the revolutions with additional braking force, to bring the wheels to the same rotation speed.

Turn off ASR

The engine power adjustment can be turned off from the cab. This can be useful in situations where you have to pull heavily on loose roads, such as gravel, or if you have chains on the wheels.

At speeds below 40 km/h, the threshold for activating ASR is increased. Then ASR will accept some loss of traction.

Torque

The force with which the axles are turned. Measured in Newton meters (Nm).

Torque is a property of a car, just like horsepower. But usually we talk about torque as the force a wheel has in a given situation, and how this force can be best utilized. RPM affects the torque in a car, and the right RPM provides efficient acceleration.

ESP

ESP stands for Electronic Stability Programme, and we can call it electronic stability control in Norwegian.

ESP uses, among other things, the ABS system's sensor to monitor the number of revolutions and the angle of the wheels - i.e. the car's actual behavior. This is compared with data on the driver's choice of engine power and steering angle - i.e. what the desired behavior is. The system detects when the actual and desired behavior do not match.

When a car skids, the revs and wheel angle are not as the driver wishes. ESP detects this and applies the brakes where necessary.

To turn off a system

ABS, EBS, ESP and other systems use many of the same components and sensors in the truck to function. If the driver chooses to turn off one system, this will in turn affect other functions. For example, turning off anti-spin/traction control will cause ESP to stop working.

Therefore, do not turn off a function before you have checked the truck's instruction manual to see what consequences it will have and how the different systems depend on each other.

3. The vehicle

3.5 Brake and brake circuit (9/10)

Condensation in the compressed air system

When air is compressed, it becomes hot. This means that hot compressed air enters the compressed air system. When hot air is cooled, it loses moisture – and then condensation, or dew, forms in the compressed air system. The condensation collects in small pools of water inside the system.

Water in a compressed air system is never good, and in sub-zero temperatures it can be life-threatening. The water can freeze, preventing the valves in the brake circuit from working properly.

Drain

The water must be drained away. There are many different solutions to this problem, and it varies from truck to truck. Modern trucks have systems where the drainage is completely automatic, and older trucks you have to drain yourself. This is stated in the truck's instruction manual.

Air dryer

Modern trucks have an air dryer in the brake circuit. This drains itself as long as the drain valve is working.

The air dryer is located directly after the compressor, so the compressed air must pass through the air dryer before it can enter the compressed air tanks and the rest of the system.

This is what the air dryer looks like. Usually, the air dryer drains automatically through a hole in the bottom of its container.

Inside the dehumidifier there are balls that attract moisture.

Drain tank

On older trucks without air dryers, you must drain the brake system of water by opening valves at the bottom of the compressed air tanks. This is called draining. The valves are opened by pulling on a ring. The tanks must be drained regularly, and if it is below +5° they must be drained every day. When it is warmer outside, you should drain 1–2 times a week.

You must keep the valve open until dry air comes out.

The tank is opened with the ring hanging on the underside.

Wet tank

Older trucks have their own wet tank, in which the water collects. Then it is that tank that must be emptied.

Borrow air

As you can see, there is nothing dangerous about bleeding air from the truck. It uses and produces air all the time. You can take advantage of this, for example if you need air for a tire. Then you can borrow air from the truck's brake circuits.

In principle, you can bleed from any brake circuit valve. However, many trucks have a dedicated valve for this, easily accessible and at a good working height. Here you can connect a hose and fill tires or other items directly from the truck.

Air outlet behind the left tire on the front axle.

Frost protection

Trucks that are drained through a tank also have something called antifreeze. Antifreeze is a technical alcohol that works inside the compressed air system and prevents condensation from freezing.

If your truck has antifreeze, you must make sure that the tank is never empty. You must also make sure that the truck uses up the antifreeze, so you know that it is preventing frost. You can check this by seeing that the antifreeze in the tank is decreasing.

3. The vehicle

3.5 Brake and brake circuit (10/10)

Brake inspection and maintenance

A truck with faulty brakes can be life-threatening. That's why you need to know how to check for faults in the brake system. Even if the brake circuits are not directly accessible to you, there are several tests you can do from the cab and by listening to the vehicle.

You are responsible for your vehicle when you are on the road – and if you learn to identify faults, you can avoid accidents.

Here we will look at:

• Identification of leaks in the feeder section, operating section and parking brake
• Identification of leakage between circuits
• Checking the air dryer, protection valve and compressor
• Checking for skewed drafts

Leak in the brake circuit

Leaks in the brake circuits mean that the compressor has to work to maintain pressure. Low pressure in the brake circuits gives you less braking power to use, and in practice it means that you cannot brake as much in a short time. If the brake circuit is empty, the parking brake is applied, and then the car stops.

Listening for leaks

Make sure the brake circuit has full pressure. You can see this from the display in the cab. When you know the pressure is ok, you can stop the engine and walk around the car while listening. If you hear air escaping, you have a leak in the supply section.

To find out if you have a leak in the control unit, place an object between the brake pedal and the driver's seat, so that the brake is activated. Then take another lap while listening. If you hear something now, there is a leak in the control unit.

You can also listen for leaks in the parking brake circuit. Then place wheel chocks in front and behind the drive wheels, and remove the parking brake. If you hear a leak now, it is in the parking circuit.

Leakage between brake circuits

When the brake circuits have normal working pressure, between 7 and 12 bar, they share air. Then both circuits will lose air if you drain the tank of one of them. But at 6 bar, the safety valve shuts the circuits off from each other. At pressures below 6 bar, only the circuit you drain is drained.

You can check that the protection valve is working and whether there is a leak between the circuits by draining the brake circuits:

• Drain circuit 1 down to 5 bar. Circuit 2 should then have 6 bar left, because the safety valve has closed off this circuit when the pressure dropped to 6.
• Then you drain circuit 2 down to 3 bar. Circuit 1 should then still have 5 bar.

If the circuits do not behave as described above, there may be a leak or fault with the protection valve, or a leak somewhere in the circuit.

Overview of brake pressure in the cab.

Drain circuit

To drain a circuit, open the valve on the compressed air tank of the circuit you want to drain.

Checking components

Many of the components in the brake system are completely inaccessible to you, but you can still check some of them.

Check protection valve

Pump the brake pedal until you have 4–5 bar in the circuit. A warning in the cab should then sound about low brake pressure. Then drain circuit 1 and check that circuit 2 maintains a pressure of 4–5 bar. At the next check, do the opposite: pump the brake until it is 4–5 bar, and drain circuit 2. Circuit 1 should then maintain a pressure of 4–5 bar.

Checking the compressor

Pump the brake pedal until the pressure is 4–5 bar. Start the engine and keep the engine revs high. Check that the pressure on the pressure gauge or display rises. You will now see that the compressor is producing compressed air.

You can also check that the compressor is sending clean compressed air by pumping compressed air into the palm of your hand. Make sure you catch the first compressed air that comes out when you open the valve. Grayish moisture in your hand indicates oil in the compressed air, and a defective compressor.

Check for moisture in compressed air

New cars with air dryers should not have moisture in the compressed air. If the compressed air is moist, the air dryer needs a new filter or needs to be replaced. To check for moisture, you can squeeze air into the palm of your hand, as described above. Make sure you catch the first air that comes out of the tank. Your hand should not get wet or damp at all.

Checking for skewed drafts

Brake pull means that the car pulls to the right or left when braking. Pulling occurs when the wheel on one side is braked more forcefully than the wheel on the other side.

To check for sideslip, keep your speed low, apply the brakes, and loosen your grip on the steering wheel. Make sure the car is on a steady, straight-ahead course.

You can continue driving even if you notice a misalignment, but you should repair it as soon as possible. Misalignment makes the car unpredictable.

3. The vehicle

3.6 Lighting and the electrical system (1/2)

The lantern

Incandescent lamps used to be the most common. Today, halogen, LED and xenon are used.

Screen

In the picture below you can see the headlight with low beam and parking light. The light bulbs are inside a parabola that reflects light. Inside the bulb for the low beam is a small lampshade, which means that the bulb only shines upwards, and not downwards. The low beam is therefore a little darker at the bottom. The light that shines upwards hits the parabola and is reflected forwards.

Truck lights

The lights on your truck should ensure that you can see and that others can see you. It is important to have the right lighting equipment. The vehicle regulations contain precise descriptions of the requirements for lights on vehicles. Here we will take a look at the most important ones.

Low beam

The dipped beam headlights must illuminate at least 40 meters of the road in front of the car.

High beam

High beam headlights must illuminate the road for at least 100 meters, and be yellow or white.

Cornering and fog lights

You must have two approved lights that are used as cornering and fog lights. They must be connected so that they cannot light without the parking lights, tail lights and license plate lights being lit at the same time.

Work light

The work light must be white or yellow, and connected in the same way as the cornering and fog lights. It must not be possible to use it without the parking lights, tail lights and license plate lights being on. There must be a warning light in the cabin that indicates whether the work light is on.

Reverse lights and marker lights

Reverse lights must only be on when reversing. Marker lights must be white and oriented forward. All cars wider than 2.30 meters must have marker lights.

Work light

Light control

You must also check that the lights are working properly. This is done by visual inspection:

• Check that the bulbs are working. If you are going to change the bulb yourself, do not touch the bulb with your hands. Dirt from your hands will melt into the bulb when it gets hot, and the light will be less bright.
• Test the headlight wipers and see that they leave a clear surface.
• Make sure there are no cracks in the glass.
• Make sure the reflectors are free of rust or other damage. They should be shiny so they reflect the light properly.
• All reflectors must be in place and clean. Reflectors can fade over time, become damaged or wear off.

3. The vehicle

3.6 Lighting and the electrical system (2/2)

The electrical system

Now we will look at the most important components of the electrical system. The location of the different components may vary from truck to truck.

Dynamo

The alternator generates electrical power from the rotation of the crankshaft, and the truck uses this power during normal driving. The alternator also supplies power to the battery. When the engine is off, the alternator is off.

The dynamo is located on the engine.

Battery

The battery stores electricity from the alternator, so the truck has power when the engine is off. When the engine is off, the power consumers must draw power from the battery. The battery also provides power to start the engine.

A truck usually has two 12-volt batteries connected in series, which provides 24 volts in the electrical circuit.

Starting

The starter is like a small electric motor that starts the diesel engine. The starter starts the engine with power from the battery, and is one of the largest consumers of electricity in the vehicle. It only uses electricity when the engine is started.

Fuses

All electrical circuits are designed to withstand a certain amount of current. If they receive more current than they are designed for, they can get hot and start to burn. To prevent this, electrical circuits each have their own fuse, which breaks the circuit if it gets too hot. When the circuit is broken, it can no longer conduct current, and the heat generation stops.

If a fuse blows, it must be replaced with a new fuse. If you are going to do this yourself, make sure that you insert the correct fuse, with the correct capacity. Never insert a fuse with too large a capacity.

Basically, the electrical circuit should withstand many of the electrical consumers being turned on, so the fuses should not blow during normal operation. When you have problems with fuses, you should always consider whether there may be something wrong with the electrical system.

Main switch

The main switch cuts off the connection between power consumers and the battery, leaving the system completely de-energized. It cuts off all power, except for the tachograph.

In addition to the main switch, there are also many other switches in the electrical circuits, which turn on and off various instruments in the truck. The switches turn off components by cutting off the power supply.

The ignition

The ignition is activated with the car key. When you insert the key and turn it, you turn on electrical consumers such as the lights and air conditioning. If you turn the key even further, you engage the starter. The starter starts the engine.

Power consumers

Power consumers are basically anything that uses electricity, such as windshield wipers, lights, starters and radios.

Jump starting with the battery

Trucks often have stops during their journey where power consumers such as heating, axle load monitor, lifting and lowering instruments, radio or other things are switched on. When the car is stationary, the alternator does not produce electricity, so in such cases the battery can be drained. Then the car cannot be started without help. To prevent such a situation, many trucks have two circuits that are independent of each other: one circuit for consumption, and one for starting the truck.

If your battery is flat, you may be able to get a jump start from another car, or from a starter battery. However, you need to check this in the owner's manual - many modern cars can neither give nor receive a jump start.

Jump starting with battery.

Procedure

If you are going to jump start your car with a battery, it must be done correctly. There are many things that can be damaged if you connect them incorrectly. You also need cables that are thick enough. The connections must be made in the correct order:

• Attach the cable to the positive terminal of the battery from which you will draw power.
• Attach the other end of the cable to the positive terminal of the dead battery.
• Attach the other cable to the negative terminal of the battery from which you will draw power.
• The other end of the cable should not be connected to the negative terminal of the battery without power. The cable must be attached to a conductive place a short distance away from the battery. It is this cable that starts the transfer of power, and sparks can occur when connecting. Those sparks should not occur on top of the battery - there may be oxyhydrogen gas there.
• Once you have started the car, the cables must be disconnected. Do this in the reverse order of connection: disconnect the negative cable from the dead battery, then from the battery with power. Disconnect the positive cable from the dead battery, then from the battery with power.

Oxygas

Oxygas is a gas consisting of hydrogen gas and oxygen gas at the same pressure and temperature. It can be produced by vehicle batteries as a product of the chemical process that charges them.

Oxypropane will explode if ignited. Therefore, you must be careful with sparks and fire around the truck's battery. This is especially important when jump-starting.

Battery acid

Inside the batteries is battery acid. The battery acid stores energy, which the battery converts into electricity when used.

The acid is located in separate chambers inside the battery, and all chambers have screw caps on top. The acid level must be checked regularly, and if it is too low, it must be topped up with distilled water. In addition, the efficiency of the battery should be checked regularly.

Battery on truck. The blue knobs are screw caps down to the battery chambers.

Measuring acid value

A battery is good if it charges efficiently. A battery that charges poorly, or fails to charge at all, is damaged. You can check how well a battery charges by measuring the density of the acid, after charging. This is called measuring the acid weight.

The acidity is measured with a hydrometer. Open the screw cap of the chamber you want to check, insert the hydrometer and read. The different acidity values ​​mean:

• 1.28–1.26 : fully charged
• 1.23 : approximately 75 percent charged
• 1.20 : half charged
• 1.14 : not charged

Hydrometer.

A battery cell can be considered damaged if it has an acid gravity of 1.23 or less when the battery should be fully charged. The battery can also be considered defective if the difference in the acid gravity of the different chambers is more than 0.03.

Remember!

Low acid gravity only means the battery is damaged if it has been charged for so long that the acid gravity should have been higher. If the battery is not charged, the acid gravity is low anyway. Even in a working battery.

3. The vehicle

3.7 Daily check

Daily check before driving

As a driver, you should always be alert and aware of how your vehicle is behaving. If you are, you will detect faults in good time. Detecting faults too late can be very expensive.

You must also do daily vehicle inspections.

Under the hood

• Oil: Pull out the dipstick, wipe off the oil, and put it back in. Pull it out again and check the level. Top up oil if necessary, and pay attention to oil consumption over time.
• Coolant: Check that you have enough coolant in your vehicle. You can see this directly on the reservoir.

Around the vehicle

• Leak: Walk around the vehicle and see if there is any fluid on the ground, which could indicate a leak from the vehicle.
• Lights: Check that all lights are working and that they are clean.
• Wheels: Check that the wheels have enough tread depth and that they have no cracks or other damage.
• Ice and snow: Look for ice or snow that may fall off while driving. It should be removed.

From the driver's seat

• Visibility: Do you have sufficient visibility from the driver's seat? The mirrors should be clean.
• Seat and steering wheel: The steering wheel and seat should be adjusted so that you sit safely and comfortably.
• Warning lights: Check to see if any of the warning lights are on when the engine is off, and if any are on when the engine is on. The warning lights indicate faults.
• Listen: Listen for noises when you turn on the engine.

Checking the oil level.

Daily check – an example

Here is an example of how a daily inspection can be carried out. Remember to familiarize yourself with what should be checked on your particular vehicle.

EU control

In the regulations, the inspection is called a periodic inspection , but it has become common to call it an EU inspection. Regular passenger cars are subject to an EU inspection once every two years, but heavy vehicles must be inspected every year.

The inspection must be carried out at an approved workshop.

What is being checked?

The EU inspection is intended to ensure that vehicles on Norwegian roads are safe to drive. Therefore, the vehicle's lights, tires, brakes, and other things that are important for safety are checked.

The vehicle's emissions are also looked at, and whether it meets environmental requirements.

Not approved

If the vehicle is not good enough, it will not be EU approved. The vehicle must then be repaired and re-inspected within a deadline set by the Norwegian Public Roads Administration. Failure to do so will result in the vehicle being impounded.

4. Load calculation

4.0 Introduction (1/2)

Chapter 4: Load calculation

In this chapter we will do load calculations. It is not as difficult as you might think, and you need to know how to do it to get a class C driver's license.

Here we will go through:

• 4.1 Important concepts
• 4.2 Load calculation with load calculation form
• 4.3 Load center of gravity – LTP
• 4.4 Bogie
• 4.5 Control tasks
• 4.6 Exercises

Tips

• Take your time. This material can be a bit difficult, but if you follow the videos and explanations, you'll do just fine.
• Find some stationery. This will allow you to write down numbers you need to remember during the calculations.
• Use a calculator. The calculations are not very difficult, but it is easy to make careless mistakes.
• Printing: It can be smart to print out the load calculation form and road lists, so you get used to doing load calculations on paper. You will have to do this on the theory test. Many people find it unfamiliar to calculate on paper, if they have only calculated on a computer before.
• Learn all the weight terms. Make sure you understand terms like payload, gross vehicle weight, and axle load. If you don't fully understand what they are, calculating the load will be much more difficult.

Here you can download the load calculation form and road list:

• Load calculation form
• Road map

4. Load calculation

4.0 Introduction (2/2)

What is load calculation?

Load calculation is about taking care of three things:

• That the vehicle does not weigh more than the vehicle can handle. The vehicle registration document states what the vehicle can handle.
• That the vehicle does not weigh more than the road can handle. The road lists state what different roads in Norway can handle.
• That the load is correctly placed on the loading platform, so that the weight is distributed as planned.

4. Load calculation

4.1 Important concepts

Important concepts in load calculation

Total weight and axle load

The gross vehicle weight of the truck is the weight of everything: vehicle, driver, cargo, and passengers. It is simply what the truck weighs if you were to drive it on a scale.

Just as your weight is distributed between the two legs you stand on, the weight of the truck is distributed between the truck's axles. How much each axle carries, or weighs, is called the axle load.

Permissible axle load is how much each axle can take.

The axle load for the front and rear axles depends on where the load is placed. If the load is far back, the rear axle will take a lot of the load's weight. If it is far forward, the front axle will take a lot of the load's weight.

If you add up the axle loads, you get the total weight of the truck.

Self-weight

The truck's curb weight is the weight of the truck, without driver or load. Often people talk about curb weight with driver , and then 75 kg for the driver is added to the curb weight of the truck.

Current weight

Actual weight is what the truck actually weighs, if you drive it on a scale. We often talk about actual total weight and actual axle load.

The truck's current weight is not listed on the vehicle registration certificate. The vehicle registration certificate cannot know what the truck weighs at any given time.

Carriage map and route list

Both the vehicle registration certificate and the road list have a maximum permitted total weight and a maximum permitted axle load.

The trolley card

• Gross vehicle weight: how much your vehicle can weigh in total. This includes everything: the weight of the vehicle, driver, passengers and cargo, and everything else you have in the car.
• Permitted axle load: how much axle load the front and rear axles can carry, i.e. how the total weight can be distributed on the axles. In this vehicle registration document, the permitted axle load on the front axle is 8000, and on the rear axle it is 11500.
• Curb weight with driver: the weight of the vehicle, + 75 kg for the driver. The vehicle in this vehicle registration document weighs 7550 with driver, so 7550 – 75 = 7475 without driver.
• Axle weight: how the vehicle's weight is distributed across the axles. The driver is not included here. The 7475 kg weight is distributed here with 3300 on the front axle and 4175 on the rear axle.
• Permitted payload incl. passengers: is how much payload the truck allows. You can also find this number by calculating the permitted total weight – curb weight with driver.

Road map

The road list shows what are the permitted weights on the road you will be driving on.

In the road list you will find the road's usage class. You will also find weight tables that show what are the permitted weights in different usage classes.

There are several road lists, but the most important one is the national road list. It is called the pink road list, and is the only one we use in this course. It is also the one you will use on the theory test at the Norwegian Public Roads Administration.

Load calculation form

Load calculation forms are useful when calculating loads. A completed form shows the weight limitations of both the road and the vehicle, and it shows how much load the front and rear axles should take.

4. Load calculation

4.2 Load calculation with load calculation form

Load calculation with load calculation form

Now we will go through load calculation using a load calculation form. Print out or draw a form on a sheet of paper and follow the exercise.

Load calculation with load calculation form

We go through the exercise from the film:

We are going to drive the E6 through Nordland. Then we need to find the chapter for normal transport for Nordland, in the pink road list.

Here we see the E6 from the Trøndelag border to the Troms and Finnmark border. It is bk 10/50, meaning usage class 10/50.

We must remember that.

Then we check the permitted axle loads. In the vehicle registration document , the permitted axle loads are 8000 / 11500.

To find permitted axle loads in the road list, we must scroll to table 1 axle load table.

Most front axles are free-rolling wheels, i.e. axles without drive. Ours is too. Permitted axle load is 10 tons.

Our rear axle is a drive axle, and has a permitted axle load of 11.5 tons.

We enter the permitted axle loads into the load calculation form. Remember to convert tons to kg! Now our load calculation form looks like this:

Our front axle has permissible axle loads of 10,000 and 8,000 kg. We must stay within the strictest limits, which is 8,000. We will remove 10,000.

On the rear axle, the limitation is 11,500 kg anyway, so we don't need to iron anything out.

Then we are left with axle loads of 8000 / 11500. We know that both axle loads are permitted, according to both the vehicle registration and the road list. But we need to check what total weight we get with these axle loads, and whether it is permitted.

The total weight will be 8000 + 11500 = 19500.

Is 19500 the permissible total weight? In the vehicle registration certificate, the permissible total weight is 19500, so it is ok. In the road list we must look in table 2 vehicle weight table.

It says that a motor vehicle with 2 axles, excluding buses, can weigh 19,000 kg. So 19,500 is 500 kg too much.

We need to reduce the total weight by 500 kg. That means we need to reduce one of the axles. We can choose which one, and we choose the rear axle this time. We reduce the axle load from 11500 to 11000.

Then the vehicle weight is reduced to 19,000, and we are within the permitted total weight.

Then we can enter the specific weights. They are listed in the vehicle registration document.

Axle weight is how much of the vehicle's weight rests on the front axle and how much rests on the rear axle. We will enter this into the form.

When we enter the weight on the front axle, we must add the weight of the driver, 75 kg. Thus, the dead weight of the front axle is 3300 + 75 = 3375. The rear axle is 4175.

Once the specific weights have been entered, we can calculate the axle load – specific weight. This will then find the payload.

4. Load calculation

4.3 Load center of gravity – LTP

LTP

A completed load calculation form states which axle loads you should have. For example, we found that we should have an axle load of 8000 at the front and 11000 at the rear. But where should the load be placed to achieve these axle loads?

LTP

We go through the exercise from the film.

In the load calculation form, we calculated that we should have axle loads of 8000 / 11000. To achieve exactly that weight distribution, the payload must be placed on the LTP.

LTP is a point on the loading platform, which is calculated after calculating the axle loads.

The formula for LTP is:

We have calculated the front axle payload in the load calculation form. It is 4625. The axle distance can be found in the vehicle registration document, and it is 5400 mm, i.e. 540 cm. Total payload is 11450.

The LTP for this planned shipment will therefore be 218.

This means that the LTP is 218 cm in front of the rear axle. This is where the load should be placed to achieve axle loads of 8000/11000.

4. Load calculation

4.4 Bogie

Load calculation with bogie

Now we're going to do another load calculation. But this time with a truck with one axle at the front and a bogie at the rear.

We will be driving this truck, on the E39 Klett x E6 - Møre og Romsdal border, in Trøndelag county.

First we check what the road's usage class is. We scroll up to Trøndelag county - normal transport in the road list. It says that E39 Klett x E6 - Møre og Romsdal border is bk 10/50.

Then we check the permitted axle loads. In the vehicle registration document, the permitted axle loads are 8000 / 19000.

Then we need to go to the road list and find table 1 axle load table.

Our front axle is free-rolling, and can weigh 10 tons. Our rear axle is a bogie, meaning two axles with a wheelbase of less than 1.8 m. This means we need to look at the row for Load from two axles.

To find the permissible axle load for Load from two axles (bogie), we must have the bogie's wheelbase.

The axle distances can be found in item 9 of the vehicle registration document. There it says 4400/1360. The first axle distance is the distance from the front axle to the front axle of the bogie. The second axle distance is the distance from the front axle of the bogie to the rear axle. Here we see that it is 1360, or 1.36 meters.

In Table 1 we see that a bogie with a wheelbase of 1.36 can have an axle load of 18 tonnes.

But here are two footnotes!

The only footnote we need to worry about here is footnote 2. It allows us to increase the axle load to 19 tons if the truck has twin-mounted wheels and air suspension. Do we have it?

We have to check this in the vehicle registration document. In point 6 we see that it says YES for air suspension. To check for twin wheels, we can look in point 12. There it says T for twin wheels.

Since we have both air suspension and twin wheels, the permitted axle load is 19 tons.

Important! It is not always an S or a T in item 12. On the theory test at the Norwegian Public Roads Administration, you will always be told whether the truck has twin wheels or not, if it is important for the task.

We enter permitted axle loads into the load calculation form:

Once we have eliminated the highest, we are left with 8000 / 19000. That gives a total weight of 27000. Is that allowed?

The vehicle license states the permitted total weight is 27,000, so that's okay.

To check the permitted total weight in the road list, we must scroll up to table 2. Here we see that a motor vehicle with 3 axles can weigh 26 tons.

Footnote 6 states that vehicles powered by alternative fuels, such as electricity, can weigh even more. We use diesel, so we don't need to worry about that footnote.

Since the permitted total weight is only 26 tons, we have to reduce. We cannot weigh 27 tons. We reduce 1000 kg on the rear axle, and get a new total weight of 26000 kg.

Since we are now within all permitted axle loads and permitted total weight, we can subtract the kerb weights and find the permitted payload.

Remember to add 75 kg for the driver to the dead weight of the front axle!

LTP

Now that we have found our axle loads, we need to calculate the LTP.

Wheelbase

In our vehicle registration document we have two wheelbases. Which one should be included in the formula for LTP?

When you have a bogie, it is the distance from the front axle to the center of the bogie that needs to be entered. To find it, you must first find the center of the bogie, by dividing the wheelbase in the bogie by two: 1360 / 2 = 680.

Then you add it together with the distance from the front axle to the bogie, i.e. 4400. 4400 + 680 = 5080. So 508 cm.

The LTP then becomes 2325 x 508 / 13605 = 86.8 cm.

And when you have bogies, the LTP is specified from the center of the bogie. So the LTP is 86.8 cm in front of the center of the bogie.

Triple bogie

Load calculation for a truck with a triple bogie is done in the same way as for a truck with a regular bogie. But now you need to check the number of steering axles, and the distance from the first to the last axle.

Here we will go through a load calculation with a truck with a triple bogie on a 10/50 axle.

Axle load

The front axle is a single free-rolling axle, and the permitted axle load is 10 tonnes according to table 1. However, our vehicle registration only allows 9 tonnes, so we cannot load 10 tonnes.

Our rear axle is a triple bogie with wheelbases of 1360 / 1300. Both distances are within 1.30–1.79, so the axle can weigh 24 tons. The vehicle license also allows 24 tons.

Vehicle weight

The axle loads of 9000 / 24000 give a vehicle weight of 33000 kg, or 33 tons.

The permitted vehicle weight in the vehicle registration certificate is 33,000 kg, so we are within that. In table 2 we have to look at Motor vehicles with 4 axles and more. There are 3 footnotes here.

Footnote 1 states that both footnotes 2 and 3 must be met.

Footnote 2 says we must have air suspension and twin-mounted wheels on the drive axle.

Footnote 3 says we must have at least 2 steering wheels.

Both air suspension, twin wheels and the number of steering wheels are listed in the vehicle registration document:

We therefore meet footnotes 2 and 3, and thus also footnote 1. This means that we can look at the row for 4-axle motor vehicles in Table 2 to find the permissible total weight. If we had not met the footnotes, we would have had the same permissible vehicle weight as for a three-axle truck.

Distance from first to last axle is 3550 + 1360 + 1300 = 6210, i.e. 5.8 m or greater. This gives a permissible vehicle weight of 32 tons. We must therefore reduce 1 ton. We choose to reduce the rear axle, so that it has an axle load of 23000.

Curb weight and payload

We enter the dead weights and find the payload.

LTP

Then we will calculate the LTP.

The wheelbase that should be entered into the formula for LTP when you have a triple bogie is the distance from the front axle to the center of the triple bogie. The center of the triple bogie is found by adding together the two wheelbases in the triple bogie, and dividing by 2:

1360 + 1300 = 2660. 2660 / 2 = 1330. The center of the triple bogie is 1330 mm.

Then you add it together with the distance from the front axle to the first axle in the triple bogie, which is 3550. It becomes:

3550 + 1330 = 4880. Converted to cm, it becomes 488.

The formula for LTP then becomes 1965 x 488 / 17555 = 54.6 cm.

Front and rear bogie

If the truck has bogies at the front and rear, you must look at Load from two axles for both the front axle and rear axle when finding the permitted axle load in Table 1.

And when you calculate LTP, it is the distance from the center of the front bogie to the center of the rear bogie that should be entered into the formula.

For example: truck with wheelbases 1500/3500/1390. That is 1500 / 2 = 750 in to the center of the front bogie. This distance is added to the wheelbase between the front and rear bogies, i.e. 3500. The rear bogie has a wheelbase of 1390, so it is 1390 / 2 = 695 in to the center. 750 + 3500 + 695 = 4945. So 494.5 cm.

4. Load calculation

4.6 Exercises (1/11)

Practice questions

We conclude this chapter with practice exercises in load calculation, so you can practice what you have learned.

4. Load calculation

4.6 Exercises (2/11)

Task 1

Based on the vehicle registration document, fill in the values ​​in a load calculation form and answer the questions.

You should not use a checklist in this assignment.

Question

• What is the curb weight on the front axle, including the driver?
• What is the maximum permissible total weight?
• What is the permitted front and rear axle load according to the vehicle registration? What is the total?
• You should reduce the rear axle to stay within the permitted total weight. What will be the axle load on the rear axle?
• Does the truck have air suspension?

Answer to task 1

• Curb weight on front axle, including driver - 6425 kg
• Maximum permissible total weight - 26000 kg
• The permissible axle load at the front is 8,000 kg, and at the rear it is 19,000 kg. That makes a total of 27,000 kg .
• The permissible total weight is 26,000 kg. So we have to reduce 1,000 kg. If we reduce 1,000 at the rear, the rear axle load becomes 18,000 kg.
• Does the truck have air suspension? - No

This load calculation form states what each axle can withstand, according to the vehicle registration. When calculating payload before a transport, you must also include restrictions from road lists and tables.

In this vehicle registration document, the permitted axle loads are 8000 / 19000. That makes 27000 in total weight. But the permitted total weight is only 26000, so here you cannot load both axles fully. This means that you have to reduce a little on one or both axles.

4. Load calculation

4.6 Exercises (3/11)

Task 2

Based on the vehicle registration document, fill in the values ​​in a load calculation form and answer the questions. You should not use a road map in this task.

Question

• What is the permissible bogie load?
• What is the permissible front payload?
• What is the total permissible payload?
• Where is the load's center of gravity?
• What is the permissible front axle load?
• What is the front axle's dead weight with driver?
• What is the permissible total weight?

Answer to task 2

• Permitted bogie load - 18000 kg
• Permissible front payload - 3005 kg
• Total permissible payload - 17085 kg
• The load's center of gravity is 98.23 cm in front of the center of the bogie. The calculation is 3005 x 558.5 / 17085 = 98.23.
• Permissible front axle load - 8000 kg
• Front axle weight with driver - 4995 kg
• Permissible total weight - 26000 kg

4. Load calculation

4.6 Practice exercises (4/11)

Task 3

You will drive a truck with cargo through Nordland County, on the E6 Trøndelag gr. / Smalvatnet-Troms and Finnmark gr. / Gratangseidet. You will make full use of the front axle.

Question

• What is the usage class on this stretch?
• What will be the payload up front?
• What will your total payload be?
• Where does LTP end up?
• What will be the front axle load?
• What is the front axle's dead weight with driver?
• What will your total weight be?
• Does the truck have air suspension?
• What is the wheelbase of the bogie?

Answer to task 3

• The usage class on the route is Bk 10/50.
• Maximum permissible front payload - 3285 kg
• Maximum permissible total payload - 17055 kg
• The load's center of gravity is 109.4 cm in front of the center of the bogie.
• Maximum permissible front axle load - 8000 kg
• Front axle weight with driver - 4715 kg
• Maximum permissible total weight - 26000 kg
• The car has air suspension
• The axle distance in the bogie is 136 cm.

Reduce the rear axle!

Permitted axle loads are 8000 / 19000 after we have crossed out the highest. This gives a total weight of 27000 in total. However, according to table 2, the permitted total weight on the road we will be driving is only 26000, so we cannot weigh 27000.

We subtract 1000 kg from the rear axle, and get the axle loads 8000 / 18000. This gives a front axle payload of 8000–4715=3285, and a rear axle payload of 18000–4230=13770.

4. Load calculation

4.6 Exercises (5/11)

Task 4

You will be driving this truck on a Bk 8/32 road. When you are given the usage class, you do not need to look in the road list.

Based on the vehicle registration and tables, fill in the values ​​in a load calculation form and answer the questions.

Question

• What is the maximum permissible bogie load?
• What is the maximum permissible front payload?
• What is the maximum permissible total payload?
• Where is the load's center of gravity?
• What is the maximum permissible front axle load?
• What is the front axle's dead weight with driver?
• What is the maximum permissible total weight?
• Does the truck have air suspension?
• What is the wheelbase of the bogie?

Answer to task 4

• The maximum permitted bogie load for bogies with a wheelbase of 138 cm is 12,000 kg , in table 1. The wagon card allows 19,000, but you must stay within the lowest limit.
• The maximum permissible front payload is 2065 kg . You get this by subtracting the front axle dead weight from the permitted front axle load. You must remember to add the driver's weight (75 kg) to the front axle dead weight.
• The maximum permissible total payload is 7985 kg. This is obtained by adding together the front axle payload and the rear axle payload.
• The load's center of gravity is 129 cm in front of the center of the rear axle. The formula for LTP is front axle payload x wheelbase in cm / total payload. The wheelbase to be entered is the distance from the front axle to the center of the rear bogie.
• The maximum permitted front axle load is 8000 kg , both in the vehicle registration certificate and table 1.
• The front axle's dead weight with driver is 5935 kg . You get this by adding the dead weight of the front axle from the vehicle registration and a driver of 75 kg.
• Maximum permitted total weight 20,000 kg . Here, table 2 sets the limit. The vehicle card allows 27,000 kg.
• The car has air suspension . You can see this in section 6 of the vehicle registration document.
• The axle distance in the bogie is 138 cm . You can see this in point 9 of the vehicle registration document.

4. Load calculation

4.6 Exercises (6/11)

Task 5

You will be driving this truck on a Bk 8/32 road.

Based on the vehicle registration document and tables, fill in the values ​​in a load calculation form and answer the questions.

Question

• What is the maximum permissible bogie load?
• What is the maximum permissible front payload?
• What is the maximum permissible total payload?
• Where is the load's center of gravity?
• What is the maximum permissible front axle load?
• What is the front axle's dead weight with driver?
• What is the maximum permissible total weight?
• Does the truck have air suspension?
• What is the wheelbase of the bogie?
• How many 90 kg pieces of luggage can you take with you?

Answer to task 5

• Maximum permissible bogie load - 12000 kg
• Maximum permissible front payload - 2195 kg
• Maximum permissible total payload - 8405 kg
• The load's center of gravity is 137.75 cm forward of the center of the rear axle.
• Maximum permissible front axle load - 8000 kg
• Front axle weight with driver - 5805 kg
• Maximum permissible total weight - 20000 kg
• The car has air suspension
• The axle distance in the bogie is 135 cm.
• 8405 / 90 = 93 packages

4. Load calculation

4.6 Practice exercises (7/11)

Task 6

You will be driving a BK 6/28 road.

Use tables, load calculation form and vehicle registration, and answer the questions.

Question

• What is the payload on the front axle?
• What is the payload on the rear axle?
• What is the truck's total payload?
• What will be the total weight of the truck?
• What limited your front axle load, was it the vehicle or the road?
• What limited the rear axle load?
• What has the strictest limit on total weight, is it Table 2 or the vehicle registration?
• What is the truck's curb weight without a driver?
• Where is the load's center of gravity?
• How many 75 kg pieces of luggage can you take with you?

Answer

• Payload on the front axle is 1695 kg.
• Payload on the rear axle is 2390 kg.
• The truck's total payload is 4085 kg. In the load calculation form, we got 5885 kg when we calculated the total weight minus the curb weight, i.e. 12000–6155=5885. 5885 kg is the payload that the vehicle allows us to carry. However, we must stay within the lowest limits, and the permitted payload front axle + permitted payload rear axle is only 4085 kg in total. Therefore, our total payload is 4085 kg.
• The truck's total weight will then be total payload + total dead weight: 4085+6115= 10200 kg
• The vehicle license, i.e. the vehicle, was the strictest. The vehicle license allows 4200 kg, while the axle load table allows 6000 kg on free wheels on the road in bk 6/28.
• The road was the strictest. The axle load table, i.e. table 1, allows 6000 kg on the drive axle on the road in bk 6/28.
• The road and vehicle had the same limit, 12,000 kg. But since the road limited the rear axle, and the vehicle license limited the front axle, the total weight did not exceed 10,200 kg.
• 6040 kg. The vehicle registration document states that the curb weight with driver is 6115 kg. Subtract 75 kg and you get 6040 kg.
• LTP is 236.51 cm in front of the rear axle. The formula is 1695 x 570 / 4085 = 236.51.
• 4085 / 75 = 54 packages.

4. Load calculation

4.6 Practice exercises (8/11)

Task 7

You will be driving this truck on a BK 8/32 road. Fill out the load calculation form and answer the questions.

Question

• What is total payload?
• Are you able to fully utilize both axles of the vehicle, on roads in service class 8/32?
• What is the permissible axle load on free wheels, on roads in service class 8/32?
• What is the total weight of the truck with driver?
• What is the truck's curb weight, front axle, without driver?
• What is front axle payload?
• What is rear axle payload?
• What number should be entered as the wheelbase in the formula for LTP?
• How many parcels of 20 kg can you take on the front axle?
• How many 20 kg pieces of luggage can you take on the rear axle?

Answer

• In the load calculation form you can see that the total payload is 5885 kg .
• Yes. The road did not require us to reduce the weight on the axles. And both axles can be fully utilized: we can load 1695 kg on the front axle and 4190 kg on the rear axle without the total weight becoming too high.
• 8 tons. The service classes are named after the maximum permitted axle load on free wheels. Service class 8 has a maximum permitted axle load on free wheels of 8 tons, and service class 10 has a maximum permitted axle load on free wheels of 10 tons.
• Total weight with driver is 6115 kg. It is stated in the vehicle registration document. You can also find it by adding together the weight of the front axle and the weight of the rear axle and the weight of the driver.
• 2430 kg. The front axle weight in the vehicle registration document is the weight without driver. In the vehicle registration document, only the total weight is stated with driver.
• Payload front axle is 1695 kg.
• Rear axle payload is 4190 kg.
• The wheelbase that should be entered into the formula for LTP is 570. 5700 mm is 570 cm.
• 1695 / 20 = 84 packages.
• 4190 / 20 = 209 packages.

4. Load calculation

4.6 Practice exercises (9/11)

Task 8

You will drive this truck on bkT8-50. Fill out the load calculation form with payload and LTP and answer the questions.

Question

• What are the permitted axle loads according to the vehicle registration?
• What are the permissible axle loads according to Table 1?
• What is total payload?
• What is the permissible vehicle weight according to Table 2?
• What is the dead weight of the front axle without the driver?
• What wheelbase should be entered into the formula for LTP?
• How many 200 kg pieces of luggage can you bring?

Answer to task 8

• 9000 / 24000.
• 8000 for the front axle, which is a free axle. 19000 for the rear axle, which is a triple bogie with a wheelbase between 1.3 and 1.79.
• Total payload is 965+11590= 12555.
• The permissible vehicle weight according to table 2 is 28 tonnes. Our truck is a 4-axle motor vehicle, with over 5.8 metres between the first and last axles. The truck has air suspension and two steering axles, so it complies with footnotes 1, 2 and 3.
• The front axle weight without driver is 6960 kg.
• 488 cm. It is the distance from the front axle to the center of the rear axle that should be entered into the formula. The distance should be given in cm. The center of the rear axle is found by adding together the axle distances in the bogie, which here is 1360+1300=2660. Dividing this by two gives 1330, which is the center of the bogie. This distance is added to the distance from the front axle and rear to the bogie, i.e. 3550. Then we get 3550+1330=4880. Converted to cm, it becomes 488.
• 12555 / 200 = 62 packages.

4. Load calculation

4.6 Exercises (10/11)

Task 9

Now you are going to drive this truck on bk8. Fill in the load calculation form with payload and LTP and answer the questions.

Question

• What are the permitted axle loads in the vehicle registration document?
• What is the distance from the first to the last axle?
• What is the permissible vehicle weight according to Table 2?
• What wheelbase should be entered into the formula for LTP?
• What will be the total payload?

Answer to task 9

• 18000 / 26000.
• 1500+3500+1390= 6390 mm. So 639 cm, and 6.3 meters.
• 24,000 kg. The truck is a 4-axle motor vehicle, with air suspension and two steering axles, and with over 5.8 meters from the first to the last axle.
• The axle distance that should be entered is the distance from the center of the front bogie to the center of the rear bogie. The center of the front bogie is 1500 / 2 = 750 cm into the bogie. The center of the rear bogie is 1390 / 2 = 695 cm into the bogie. The distance from center to center is therefore 750 + 3500 + 695 = 4945 mm. Converted to cm, it becomes 494.5 .
• 7825 kg.

4. Load calculation

4.6 Practice exercises (11/11)

Task 10

You are going to drive this truck on BK8. Calculate the payload and answer the questions.

Question

• What is the distance from the first to the last axle?
• What is the dead weight of the front axle without the driver?
• What is the permissible vehicle weight according to Table 2?
• What is the permissible front axle payload?

Answer to task 10

• 3550 + 1310 + 1390 = 6250 mm. That is 6.25 meters.
• 8450 kg. The dead weight of the front axle with driver is 8450 + 75 = 8525 kg.
• 24,000 kg. The truck is a 4-axle motor vehicle, with air suspension and two steering axles, and with over 5.8 meters from the first to the last axle.
• –525 kg. The curb weight of 8525 kg is higher than the permitted axle load on bk8, which is 8000 kg. Therefore, the car cannot drive on bk8. It is too heavy.

5. Load securing

5.0 Introduction

Chapter 5: Load securing

In this section we will look at load securing. Load securing is one of the most important things you learn when you get a class C driver's license. It is life-threatening, and also a criminal offense, to be careless with load securing.

Here we will go through:

• 5.1 Why secure the load?
• 5.2 Laws and regulations
• 5.3 Important concepts in cargo securing
• 5.4 Security methods
• 5.5 Things to watch out for when securing cargo
• 5.6 Example of load securing
• 5.7 Control tasks
• 5.8 Exercise

Regulations within cargo securing

This chapter is based on Norwegian law and the EU's guidelines for cargo securing. If you follow these, you will stay within the legislation and practice in most European countries.

European Best Practice Guidelines on Cargo Securing for Road Transport

The EU guidelines can be found in the European Best Practice Guidelines on Cargo Securing for Road Transport. They are often called Best Practice, and you can easily find them online. This document is a common basis for good cargo securing – and many of the resources you will use as guidance are based on this.

International Guidelines on Safe Load Securing for Road Transport

The International Guidelines on Safe Load Securing for Road Transport is another important resource. This is a handbook for better load securing on the road, which is also international. The Transportfackens Yrkes- och Arbetsmiljönämnd (TYA) has created a mini-guide based on this handbook. It is called Lathund, and it has a number of tables that show how much securing is needed in different situations. If you are going to work a lot with load securing, you will certainly come across the Lathund tables.

Sensible load securing

There is much in cargo securing that is not regulated by law. Lathund and Best Practice are only recommendations. This does not mean that you can be sloppy with cargo securing! The law still requires that your vehicle be safe. This applies throughout Europe. And for that to be the case, the cargo must be secured properly. Poorly secured cargo can have serious consequences.

Good load securing is important for the safety of roads in Norway and Europe.

5. Load securing

5.1 Why secure the load?

Cancers – A simple introduction

Why secure cargo?

The load must be secured to prevent movement. In this chapter we will look at some concepts from physics that can describe the forces the load is exposed to and how it behaves when it is transported.

Gravity

Gravity pulls things down towards the center of the Earth. When you put something on the ground, it is gravity that makes it stay there.

But, as you know: when you put a coffee cup on the dashboard of your car, it will tip over when you start driving – even though gravity is trying to hold it down. Gravity is not strong enough, and the coffee cup cannot handle all the movements of the car. This is due to inertial forces.

Inertial forces

When you drive the car, the coffee cup falls over.

What really happens is that the coffee cup stays where it was – it can't keep up with the car that suddenly moves forward. The coffee cup is slow.

There are many inertial forces. You can experience them when you:

• accelerates
• brakes
• swings

Gravity is NOT a safety net!

Even though very heavy loads have a lot of gravity to hold them in place, they must be secured well. Inertia forces increase with gravity. Therefore, gravity alone cannot secure the load – gravity can secure the load in conjunction with suitable securing equipment.

Inertial forces in vehicles

During normal driving, you expose your load to three types of inertial forces:

• Acceleration – the coffee cup on the dashboard that tips over when the car starts moving, tips over due to inertial forces during acceleration. The coffee cup cannot keep up with the car’s acceleration – it is too slow. The coffee cup falls backwards.
• Brake – if you maintain a steady speed and put the coffee cup on the dashboard, you can make it stay there. But if you brake, it will tip over. The coffee cup cannot brake as fast as the car – the coffee cup is slow to brake. The cup tips over because it has a higher speed than its surface. The coffee cup flies forward.
• Turn – if you turn, the cup can also tip over. If you turn quickly, the cup will not be able to keep up with the turn – it is slow. When the car turns, the cup continues straight ahead and tips over, because the surface disappears. The cup tips over in the opposite direction of the one you are turning.

Friction

Friction is not really a force. But we include it here because it affects the movement of the load. Friction is important for how inertial forces work on the load. Simply put, friction is about how slippery it is, i.e. how much it takes for the load to slide on the loading platform.

Since friction can help to keep the load on the plane, we can consider it a kind of cargo securing. Friction alone is not enough securing, but friction helps determine how much other securing the load needs.

5. Load securing

5.2 Laws and regulations (1/2)

Laws and regulations for securing cargo

There are many rules for securing cargo. The most basic ones are:

§ 3 Basic rules for traffic

Everyone must travel with consideration and be alert and cautious so that no danger or harm can arise and so that other traffic is not unnecessarily obstructed or disrupted.

§ 23 Responsibility for the condition of the vehicle, etc.

Before starting to drive, the driver must ensure that the vehicle is in a safe and proper condition and that it is properly and properly loaded. He must also ensure that the vehicle is in a safe and proper condition and properly loaded during use.

These regulations require you to be alert and considerate in traffic, and to ensure that your vehicle is not a danger to yourself or others. When you drive a truck, you are big and heavy – and therefore there is a lot to take into account.

Regulations on the use of vehicles

The Vehicle Use Regulations have many provisions regarding the transport of cargo. However, only some of them apply to your particular vehicle, and you will learn these over time.

Some key provisions from this regulation, which apply to almost all heavy vehicles, are:

• The goods must be positioned so that the driver has good visibility and can drive safely.
• All mandatory lights and markings must be visible.
• The weight of the goods should be distributed as much as possible between the wheels on the same axle, and at least 20 percent of the vehicle's current total weight should be carried by the steering wheels.
• Goods or fasteners must not drag, fall off or make unnecessary noise. Goods must be secured so that they do not cause damage.

Steering wheel

The wheels of a vehicle that can be turned by the steering wheel, i.e. the front axle.

Secure against inertial forces

Inertial forces are an important reason why you need to secure your load. Remember what happened with the coffee cup?

Section 3-3 of the Regulations on the Use of Vehicles deals with how to secure the load from shifting when accelerating, turning or braking. The section sets requirements for how much weight you must secure for:

Forward securing

When you brake, the load can move forward. The rules state that the load securing must be strong enough to withstand 0.8 times the weight of the goods forward. As a rule, it is forward that the inertia forces are greatest.

Backward fuse

When you accelerate, the load can move backwards. The load securing device must withstand 0.5 times the weight of the goods when moving backwards.

Sideways fuse

When turning, the load can move out to the sides. On the sides, the load securing must withstand the same as on the rear, namely 0.5 times the weight of the goods.

But what does this mean?

But what does it mean that the securing must withstand 0.8 times the weight of the goods? Or that it must be secured for 1000 kg or more?

Imagine a load of 1000 kg. Section 3-3 requires that it be secured for 0.8 of its weight forward, i.e. 0.8 x 1000 = 800 kg. This means that it must be secured so well that you can pull the load – i.e. pull it forward – with a force of 800 kg, without the securing breaking.

If you pull the load from the side, you should be able to pull with a force of 500 kg, or 0.5 x 1000 kg, without the safety device breaking. Then you have secured 500 kg sideways, or 0.5 times the weight of the goods.

5. Load securing

5.2 Laws and regulations (2/2)

EN – European Norm

Many of the guidelines used in load securing are found in tables and lists marked EN.

EN stands for European Norm, but they are often called European standards. There are many ENs. They set standards for different things, such as load capacity of loading platforms and lashing hooks. Many of the ENs are in Best Practice.

In practical use, a European Norm has several functions:

• They set requirements for how much truck structures can withstand. Truck manufacturers must comply with these requirements.
• They provide information about the capacity of the vehicle to those who use it. Often the vehicle's power is stated together with information about the current standard.
• They become a certificate of quality, and thus an assurance to the user that the construction is proper. The certificates are located directly on the truck, where they apply. The EN number is stated on the certificate.

EN 12640 sets the standard for the strength of lashing hooks on loading platforms.

Best Practices

The European Best Practice Guidelines on Cargo Securing for Road Transport are often called Best Practice, and describe a number of recommendations related to the transport of cargo on European roads. The guidelines are not a piece of legislation, but a guide for safe cargo securing. In Norway, they are often called good practice, and they are the starting point for much activity within cargo securing.

Combined transport

When goods are transported by multiple means of transport, such as car, boat, plane and train, it is called combined transport. Containers are often transported by combined transport because they can be easily attached to boats, trains and cars.

In combined transport, there are different rules for securing cargo than in transport by single truck. This is because the forces that the cargo is exposed to during transport vary with the different means of transport. In combined transport, you must follow your own tables and standards, and if you are unsure, you can contact the Armed Forces, the Norwegian Truck Owners Association or the Norwegian Public Roads Administration.

Things to consider when combining transport:

• The load carrier, for example the container, does not necessarily have anything in front or behind in combined transport. In cases where the container is turned over during transport, it is advisable to ensure that the load is secured equally to the front and rear.
• To make the load carrier stable in handling and shipping, the load should be evenly distributed.
• Combined transport puts extra strain on the load. It may therefore be a good idea to check the load securing when you take over the load. See if it has withstood the transport and whether any lashings need to be retightened.

5. Load securing

5.3 Important concepts in cargo securing

Important concepts in cargo securing

Here we will look at some important terms within load securing. Many of them you have heard before – but it is good to have a refresher.

Here we will look at:

• Angles
• Power, weight and strength
• Kg and daN
• Friction value and friction coefficient

Shipping of aluminum drills. The load securing methods visible here are halter lashing and over-the-shoulder lashing.

Angles

When securing cargo, you must pay attention to the angles of the cargo securing. It is mainly the angle between the loading platform and the securing mechanisms that is important.

Power, weight and strength

In addition to this, the load securing capacity is important. Capacity can also be called the strength or power of the load securing. What the securing equipment can withstand is usually stated directly on the equipment, often engraved into an attached medallion or sewn onto a patch.

The strength of the load securing device is often stated in dekaNewtons (daN) and kilograms (kg). For example, on a lashing strap it may say 2000 kg/daN. Kilos and dekaNewtons can be used interchangeably.

The unit of force is named after Isaac Newton.

Kg and daN

Kg and daN indicate two different things: kg indicates weight, and daN indicates force. However, both can indicate the strength of a tension band.

Why is that? Imagine a box standing on a loading platform. The box has a mass – that is, a weight – of 2000 kg. This weight can also be understood as a force, because it pushes the loading platform downwards towards the ground. The force with which it pushes the platform can be expressed in Newtons.

Weight is force

You can say that you need 2000 daN to lift 2000 kg. You can also say that 2000 kg can push an object with a force of 2000 daN, downwards, sideways or upwards, if it is subjected to forces. This happens with the load when you drive a car.

Kg and dan are almost the same. 2039 kg gives a pressing force of 2000 dan.

Friction value

Just like weight and force, friction can also be measured. The amount of friction you have can be indicated by µ. µ is a coefficient of friction, and is pronounced my.

You can also talk about friction value – a high friction value means a lot of friction. As mentioned, friction is an important part of load securing. If you have a high friction value, you need less securing equipment than if the friction is low.

5. Load securing

5.4 Security methods (1/2)

Security methods

In this chapter we will look at different equipment for securing cargo, and the methods in which this equipment is used. What you use to secure cargo depends on your cargo, and it is very common to combine several methods.

Here we will go through:

• Friction
• Locking
• Covering
• Stamping
• Lashing

Friction protection

Much of load securing is about increasing the friction between the load and the surface. Since friction is a safety feature you always have, friction is a good place to start when securing your load. Friction determines how easily your load slides – and thus how much safety you need to use.

Securing that uses friction to hold the load in place can be called friction securing. Overlap lashing is friction securing. The straps that go over the load hold the load in place by pushing it down against the surface. The straps are not attached to the load – so it is only the friction that keeps it where it is. If the friction were not there, the load would have slipped out of the overlap lashing.

Assault lashing.

With all forms of friction securing, high friction is desirable, as this is what secures the load. However, you must always calculate with a safety margin, as it is dangerous to overestimate the friction value. Start with the lowest possible friction value in each load securing device.

To increase friction between the load and the loading platform, you can:

• Ensure that the cargo and loading platform are dry
• Press the load down towards the plane, for example with a lashing strap
• Using a friction mat or other friction-increasing surface
• Use friction-increasing spray or glue, preferably between layers of cargo

ATTENTION!

Friction between the load and the loading platform is important. But don't forget that friction can also occur in other places, for example between the load and the pallet.

Locking

Another method of securing cargo is locking. This method is both solid and quick.

When locking, you can use clamps, bolts or screws, or standardized locking mechanisms designed for load securing.

Locking is mainly used in container transport, and most containers have standardized locks. C-containers have one lock in each corner.

Hooklift containers

Hook lift containers have a slightly different locking system. Here there are two locks on the short side at the front, and two at the back. Hook lift containers are not standardized to the same extent as the C-container, and additional securing equipment must be used. Chains are well suited for securing containers.

The cargo inside the container!

When transporting containers, it is important to ensure that the container is securely attached to the vehicle and that the load inside the container is adequately secured. Containers are equipped with lashing hooks.

C-containers

C-containers are the most common type of container in international shipping. They are standardized, with fixed dimensions and a locking system. They can be easily stacked on cargo ships, and one C-container can fit on a truck.

Covering

Covering or tarpaulin does not protect the load from the forces. However, if what you are transporting is likely to generate dust, it must be covered. It can be moistened with water until it no longer generates dust.

It is important to remember that loads can change shape. If a loose mass such as sawdust freezes, it can change shape into a solid block. And, if you have moistened the soil, it can quickly start to become dusty again if the weather is nice and the water evaporates.

Goods must remain in the vehicle!

Goods that may cause dust, smoke or swirl from the vehicle must be dampened, covered with a tarpaulin or net or otherwise prevented from leaving the vehicle during transport.

This is stated in the regulations regarding the use of vehicles.

Stamping

Stamping, or closing as it is also called, means placing the load against something so that it cannot shift.

You can stamp the load with the vehicle's fixed devices: doors, partitions, barriers or stakes if you have them.

Stamping is effective if done correctly, and is often used in conjunction with lashing. Stamping is most commonly used to secure forwards.

Barrier

Barriers are also a way to seal the load, because the load is placed against the barriers.

Load carriers with barrier boom functionality have rails that run along both sides of the load compartment, often at two heights. The rails have attachment mechanisms adapted to the barrier boom. The attachment mechanisms run along the entire rail, and the booms can therefore be attached wherever it suits, according to the load.

Rails for barrier barriers.

Lashing

When lashing a load, the load is secured with fiber straps, chains, wires or other suitable ropes. Fiber straps, or tension straps, are very common. These are made for lashing and are equipped with a mechanism for tightening and information about their strength.

For heavier loads, chains or steel ropes are often used to secure the load. This equipment also has markings and a tightening mechanism.

Lashing hooks

The loading platform has lashing hooks, or lashing points, to which you attach the lashing. They vary in number, location and load capacity, but they are normally found along the sides of the cargo area. On a standard bodywork, you can expect the lashing point to have a securing capacity, or LC, of ​​2000 daN.

LC

Lashing Capacity. This is the most important characteristic of a lashing. LC indicates how much force the lashing can withstand, and is stated on a label on the lashing.

Lashing hooks also have LC. This indicates how much force the lashing hook has.

5. Load securing

5.4 Security methods (2/2)

Various lashings

There are many ways to lash cargo. None of them should be used as the sole securing method.

Assault lashing

When lashing over, you attach the lashing to the lashing hooks on one side of the loading platform, pull it over the load and down to the lashing hooks on the other side. The lashing goes over the load and pushes it down towards the platform. This increases the friction between the load and the surface, and the load is therefore better positioned. This is therefore a form of friction securing. As it is a friction securing method, it is crucial that high friction is achieved with this securing method – that is, that a lot of pressure is achieved against the surface.

This method is widely used, and often in combination with stamping. In the picture you see assault lashing in combination with stamping with pallets.

Halter lashing

Halter lashing can secure loads forwards and backwards, depending on which side you place the lashing. One halter can only secure one way. But the way it secures, it is very effective. Halter lashing holds the load in place by enclosing corners, or by holding back the side of the load. There is special equipment for halter lashing, as you can see in the picture.

Halter lashing prevents the load from flying forward or backward during sudden braking or acceleration. It does not press the load against the ground. Therefore, halter lashing is not friction protection.

Halter lashing with regular lashing

It is common to lash a halter without special lashing equipment. In this case, you just use regular lashing, similar to that used for assault lashing. In order for the safety device to function as a halter lashing, you must ensure that the lashing does not fall down. It must be held in place on the side of the goods, for example with a pallet.

Loop lashing

Loop lashing goes from the lashing hook and around the entire load, and back into the same lashing hook. It goes around the load like a loop. It is very suitable for long loads. On one package, you must have at least four lashing straps in total to prevent the load from prying out and shifting forwards or backwards. Loop lashing works in pairs, with two lashings pulling on the load from each side. This holds the load in place.

If done correctly, it provides good protection against lateral displacement. It does not provide forward and backward protection, and it is not considered friction protection.

Direct lashing

With direct lashing, the lashing is attached directly to the load. The load must have a suitable attachment, and the attachment must be strong enough. Direct lashing is often used to secure containers or construction machinery to the loading platform.

Lashing with chain

Loads that have a lot of sharp edges, uneven surfaces or high weight can be difficult to secure with fiber lashing. Fiber lashing wears out quickly and loses capacity. In such cases, chains are often used.

Chain can be used in almost the same way as fiber straps, as long as it is possible. You use the same principles and the same lashing hooks.

Chain quality

Chain strength varies greatly. Poor chains have properties that are unfavorable for load securing: they weaken in the cold, and break instead of stretching when tightened too much. Alloy chain of minimum Grade 80 should be used. These have high steel quality, and a certificate that guarantees capacity.

Tightening mechanism

When securing with a chain, it is important that the chain is tight. Therefore, you must tighten it with a chain tensioner. With this, you can shorten the chain so that it fits better on the load. Both fiber straps and chain require re-tightening!

Chain marking

There is a difference between chain made for lifting and chain made for lashing. When you lash loads with chain, you must use chain made for lashing. These have a square tag. If the chain is made for lifting, the tag is 8-, 10- or 12-sided.

The chain label states the chain's LC. LC is usually stated in daN or kN. It may also state which EN standard the chain is made to – and the most common standard is EN 12195-3.

Powerful fuse

Chains have a large securing capacity. In this picture you see a semi-trailer with a double halter lashing and two over-the-top lashings. Due to the large capacity, there are only four chains in total, and the securing becomes neat and clear.

Concrete elements secured with a double halter and two lashings.

5. Load securing

5.5 Things to watch out for when securing loads (1/3)

Things to look out for when securing cargo

In order for the load securing to be effective, there are a number of things that must be taken care of. Here we will look at:

• Angles
• Sharp edges
• The strength of the fuse
• Distribution of power
• Worn equipment

Lashing angles

For the securing to be effective, you must pay attention to the angles between the plane and the lashing. If you cannot lash within the angles stated here, you cannot count on the same capacity in the lashings.

Assault lashing

When lashing over, the angle between the lashing and the plane should be between 75° and 90°. From 75° and below, the capacity of the lashing is reduced, and if the angle is below 30°, another method must be chosen.

Angle to plumb line

If the load is shaped in such a way that the angles associated with the lashing are difficult to keep track of, you can use the plumb line as a starting point. The plumb line is the line that forms a 90 degree angle with the loading plane. The angle between the lashing and the plumb line should not be more than 30°.

The plumb line.

Halter lashing

When lashing with a halter, the angle between the plane and the lashing should not be more than 45°.

Direct lashing

When lashing directly, the angle between the lashing and the plane must be between 30° and 60°.

Sharp edges

When lashing, make sure that the lashing is not too tight on sharp edges. This can cause the fibers in the lashing to break and the lashing to lose strength. To avoid such wear, use spacers on the sharp edges of the load.

Spacers can be made from many different things – for example old tires or straw. There are also many people in the construction industry who give away old fire hoses for free, which can be used very well. Cardboard from recycling containers or old work gloves can also be good.

Rigid edge profile

Using a rigid edge profile as a spacer can also help to keep the load together and distribute the lashing force across multiple packages. This will increase stability. Rigid edge profiles can be made of plastic, metal or wood.

This spacer is stiff enough to increase the stability of these crates, and to allow each lashing to hold more than one crate it is placed over.

Chain

A tight chain can damage or mark the load. Placing a spacer under the chain will distribute the load more evenly. This will protect the load.

5. Load securing

5.5 Things to watch out for when securing loads (2/3)

Lashing strength

The characteristics of the load securing equipment are important to be aware of when securing cargo. If the capacity of the equipment is not taken into account, the entire load securing may be worthless.

Now we will look at some important values ​​related to cargo securing. Many of them come from lashing. If you know what these values ​​mean, you will better understand the connections and mechanisms in securing.

Labeling of lashing equipment

Load securing equipment is usually marked according to Norwegian or European standards. The marking should indicate how much weight the equipment can secure. Fiber straps that can withstand more than 2000 daN, or 2000 kg, should be marked with the manufacturer, year of production, material type and strength.

Now we will look at three concepts that say something about the strength of the lashing:

• SHF
• STF
• LC

SHF

Fiber lashing should be equipped with a tensioning mechanism, which allows you to tighten the strap tightly over the load.

These buckles come in varying strengths. The strength of the buckle can be found on the lashing label, such as SHF . SHF stands for Standard Hand Force, and it tells you how much weight you need to put on the buckle to tighten the lashing sufficiently.

Most buckles have a SHF of 50 kg. This means that they are designed so that you have to press with 50 kg of hand force on the buckle, in order for the strap to secure with the strength that it is stated that it can secure. Most are able to put 50 kg on the buckle – but if you are unable to do that, you can use an extension handle. These are designed for exactly this purpose, and they make it much easier to tighten the strap effectively. It may also be a good idea to use extension handles if you want relief.

STF

STF stands for Standard Tention Force. STF is next to SHF on the fiber strap. This is because STF is the force you achieve by tightening with SHF – that is, what is considered the lashing's tensioning capacity. It is mainly with assault lashing that you look at STF when checking strength.

Preload

STF describes the lashing's ability to tighten something firmly, i.e. press something down against the loading surface. That is why it is often called pre-tensioning, or pressing force in Norwegian. STF is most important when securing with friction, for example direct lashing.

With friction lashing, the load is pressed down towards the plane, making it "heavier" - without gaining more mass and inertial forces. STF shows the force that the lashing has to press the load down. A lashing with an STF of 300 daN will "increase" the weight of the load by 300 kg.

Double STF

A lap lashing is a form of friction securing where the lashing goes over the load, pressing it down from both sides. Then the lashing gets double the STF, since the STF acts on both sides of the load. So, if you lap lash with a strap with STF 1000 daN, the lashing strap will act with a total STF of 2000 daN.

LC

LC stands for Lashing Capacity.

When lashing, as mentioned, it is important that the lashing is able to press the load down towards the plane. But with other lashings, this is not the point. The halter and loop must be tight, but they should not press the load down in the same way. Instead, they should hold the load back when the forces of motion try to shift it.

Preload is therefore not as important here – and when assessing the strength of the fuse, one looks at LC instead. LC is often called load fuse strength.

Here you see two lashings: one stretched out, and one that is placed over something.

Double LC

On the label of the lashing there is a picture of two lashings: one that is extended, and one that lies above the load – in other words, it is shaped like an inverted U. When extended, this lashing has an LC of 2500 daN. This is for example the case of direct lashing. In this case, it only holds the load from one point.

But when it is placed over the load and secured on each side, for example by halter lashing, it has double the LC – 5000 daN. This is because it secures from two points. Lashing also does this, but with lashing we are looking at STF.

The halter lashing holds the load from two sides – and LC is most important. The overhand lashing tightens the load down to the plane on two sides – and STF is most important.

Distribution of power

The over-the-shoulder lashing pulls the load down from both sides – it pushes the load down with twice the STF. However, for the securing to be effective, the force must be evenly distributed. If the lashing cannot slide relatively unhindered over the corners of the box, the weight distribution will be skewed: there will be a lot of pre-tension on the side where the buckle is, and little on the other side. In reality, you will not get the STF that the strap says you can secure with.

It is important to pay attention to this when lashing. A spacer can help here. It can help the lashing to slide unhindered, and thus contribute to the distribution of force.

Due to the risk of uneven distribution of force, and because the load "settles" during transport, the safety catch must always be retightened after a few kilometers.

5. Load securing

5.5 Things to watch out for when securing cargo (3/3)

Lashing hook strength

When lashing, you almost always rely on the lashing hooks on the loading platform. The strength of the lashing hooks is usually stated in the LC, and is stated directly on the platform or in the certificate. If the lashing hook has an LC of more than 2000 daN, you must have a certificate.

Assault lashing

When using a lashing attachment, make sure that the hook's LC is not lower than the lashing's STF. If you attach multiple lashings to one hook, the total STF must not be more than the hook's LC.

For example:

You have a lashing with STF of 750 daN, and a hook with LC of 2000. How many such lashings can you attach to the hook?

There is enough capacity for two lashings. 750 + 750 = 1500. If you take another one, it becomes 2250, and that is too much.

Direct, loop and halter

When using lashing that is not intended to tension but to hold the load, such as a halter or loop, you must ensure that the hook has at least as high an LC as the lashing.

Exposed security mechanisms

When securing cargo, it is desirable that the cargo and the securing are as "united" and compact as possible. You should also ensure that lashing hooks, stampings and other securing mechanisms are not exposed. If these mechanisms are damaged, the cargo securing can become completely worthless.

The lashings should be attached inside the vehicle. If they are attached outside, they are more vulnerable to external influences.

Here are some of the lashings attached to the frame of the container. They should be attached inside.

Worn safety equipment

If the load securing equipment is worn out, it does not have the capacity stated on the label. The equipment quickly loses strength – after just one use, it has lost half of its strength. It is also difficult to know exactly what the capacity of used equipment is. Therefore, load securing equipment must be used with caution, without taking any chances. It is better to secure too much than too little!

Fiber lashing must be discarded if:

• the marking is so worn that it no longer provides information about durability
• there is a knot on it
• the seams that attach the lashing to its fastening mechanism have started to unravel
• The longitudinal fibers of the lashing are weakened. These are important for the securing capacity!
• the lashing has been exposed to harmful chemicals, such as alkaline liquids. Powdery or milky lashing surface may be signs of chemicals

Chain must be discarded if:

• it is bent or twisted
• has stretched more than what is approved by the manufacturer
• has more than 10% material wear. This means that the thickness has been reduced by more than 10%. The thickness is measured in the arc, i.e. where the chain rings are in contact with each other, using a caliper. This applies to both lifting and lashing chains
• bolts are deformed. Individual bolts can be replaced if necessary.

Caliper

Handy tool that can measure thickness.

5. Load securing

5.6 Example of load securing (1/3)

Load securing step by step

Every load securing system is different, and it is difficult to create a step-by-step guide that can be used every time. It all depends on the load, vehicle and available securing.

The load securing example we will look at now still has some basic steps that will be repeated in many load securing projects. These are:

• Is the load easy to handle? Can I make it easier to handle?
• Consider friction. How easily does the load slide?
• Assess the risk of tipping. How easily can the load tip?
• How much does the load weigh? How many kilograms does the law or good practice require me to insure for?
• How can I most effectively and safely achieve this protection?
• Is the equipment okay and is it attached correctly?

Our cargo

The load we are securing in this example consists of two identical crates. Each weighs 2300 kg, and the weight is evenly distributed within the crate. Each crate is made of rough wood, and has the following dimensions:

• height 250 cm
• length 150 cm
• width 150 cm

The base of the cargo bed is an aluminum teardrop plate.

This load is quite uncomplicated. The boxes have an even weight distribution, are regular in shape and are not particularly fragile. They also have good friction against the surface. Two packages are more difficult than one package – but since the packages are identical, it is not that difficult after all.

Assembling packages

The first thing we do is assess how the load is to be handled. Does anything need to be lashed together? Does anything need to be wrapped, or do we need plastic film?

Our cargo is pretty much ready for shipping, but we can make it a little easier to secure by putting the boxes together. This can be done with a load-bearing edge profile, which is placed along the edge of both boxes. Lashing straps will hold the edge profile in place. The edge profile can also act as a spacer, protecting the lashing from sharp corners. You can also put packages together by lashing them together.

Our composite package weighs 4600 kg and has the following dimensions:

• height 250 cm
• length 300 cm
• width 150 cm

5. Load securing

5.6 Example of load securing (2/3)

How much weight should we secure?

As we remember: we must secure for 0.8 times the weight forward, and 0.5 times the weight sideways. That is 80 percent and 50 percent.

Our two boxes are combined into a package of 4600 kg. This means that we must ensure:

• Forward: 4600 x 0.8 = 3680 kg
• To the side: 4600 x 0.5 = 2300 kg
• Backwards: 4600 x 0.5 = 2300 kg

What is the friction against the surface?

When we are going to calculate how many securing devices we need to secure this weight, we need to know how easily the load slides on the surface – that is, what the friction between the load and the surface is. The friction value is called my, and is written µ.

The easiest way to find µ is to look in a friction table. Friction tables can be found in Best Practice, and are probably available where you do the load securing.

Our cargo is rough wood, and our loading platform is teardrop plate. So we can look at sawn wood versus grooved aluminum in the table – where the friction value is 0.4.

5. Load securing

5.6 Example of load securing (3/3)

Lashing the load

Now that we know the friction we can start securing. A good place to start is with assault lashing. We have 4-ton lashings, which is a fairly common lashing to use.

Best practice has created tables where you can see how many lashings you need with different friction values. The table below shows a 4-ton lashing, which is a very common lashing.

Lateral and rear securing

Here we first need to find the correct friction value, which is 0.4. Then we can see that one lashing is enough to secure a load of 2900 kg laterally and rearwardly. Our load weighs 4600, so we need 4600 / 2900 = 1.58 lashings, or 2 lashings, to get good enough lateral and rearward securing.

NB! As you remember, we only really need to secure for 2300 kg laterally, since the requirement is only 0.5. This requirement is already baked into this table – so when we calculate the number of lashings we need, we still have to start with a load of 4600.

Forward securing

Forward, there are much stricter requirements for securing, so here we see that one lashing is only enough for a load of 630 kg. With the two lashings we use to secure sideways, we have securing for 630 x 2 = 1260 kg of load. Our load weighs 4600, so that is not enough.

To avoid using so many assault lashings, we should find a way to secure better forward, such as a halter lashing.

Halter lashing

To check how many halter lashings you need, we need a halter lashing table.

Here we can see that one halter is sufficient to secure a load of 7500 kg, with a friction value of 0.4. Since our load only weighs 4600 kg, we only need one halter lashing.

The solution is therefore two assault lashings for securing sideways and backwards, and one halter lashing for securing forwards.

NB! As you may see in the table for halter lashing, one halter lashing can secure a load of 19,000 kg sideways and backwards. However, when the halter lashing is placed so that it secures forwards, it will not secure sideways or backwards. Therefore, one and the same halter lashing cannot secure multiple paths at the same time. Therefore, we must keep the two overhand lashings as lateral and backwards securing.

Lather correctly

We have found a good solution that provides effective and reliable security. However, for this solution to be effective, there are a few things you need to be careful of:

• The angle between the halter lashing and the loading platform must not exceed 45°.
• The angle between the two lashing rings and the loading platform must be between 75° and 90°.
• The lashings must be tight enough, and they must be retightened after some time.
• The lashing hook to which the halter lashing is attached must have at least as high an LC as the halter lashing.
• The lashing hooks to which the assault lashing is attached must have an LC at least as high as the assault lashing's STF.
• All lashings must be sufficiently protected from the sharp edges of the box. The edge profile is sufficient as a spacer for the over-the-top lashings if it is soft enough. If it is not, another solution must be found. The spacer does not cover all the edges on which the halter rests, so extra spacers are needed here.

5. Load securing

5.8 Exercise

Practice assignment

You are going to transport a square box made of rough wood. The box weighs 3 tons, and the weight is evenly distributed in the box. You are going to secure it with 4-ton lashings.

Look at the tables and answer the questions.

Question

• If the floor of the truck is grooved aluminum, how many lashings do you need to secure it fully forward?
• Does this solution provide sufficient lateral and rear protection?
• On a plywood base, how many lashings do you need to secure it fully forward?
• You place the box on a Euro pallet and load it onto a truck with a stainless steel plate base. What is the friction value you should use when calculating the number of lashings?
• And with this combination, how many assault lashings do you need for complete security in all directions?
• And is this solution good?

Answer

• 5 lashings. µ between the grooved aluminum and the box of sawn pallet/wooden plank is 0.4. With µ 0.4 you need 3000 / 630 = 4.76, i.e. 5 lashings.
• Yes. Laterally and backwards, only 3000 / 2900 = 1.03 are needed, i.e. 2 lashings.
• 4 lashings. The friction is 0.45. 3000 / 810 = 3.7. So 4 lashings.
• µ 0.3. If you place the load on a pallet, you must examine the friction value between the plane and the pallet, and the pallet and the load. You must insure for the lowest friction value. µ between stainless steel plate and wooden pallet is 0.3. Between wooden pallet and wood is µ 0.45. We insure for the lowest – µ 0.3.
• 8 lashings. With µ 0.3 we need 3000 / 380 = 7.89, i.e. 8 lashings. Backwards and sideways we only need 3000 / 1100 = 2.72, i.e. 3 lashings. So 8 lashings are enough.
• Well. As long as you have enough lashing hooks, and as long as you never exceed the LC on the lashing, it is an okay solution – it is at least safe. However, you can make the securing more rational. For example, you could probably drop some of the assault lashings if you had used a halter lashing or stamping, which is particularly suitable for securing forward.

6. Load carriers and freight transport

6.0 Introduction

Chapter 6: Load carriers and freight transport

There are many different load carriers for a truck, adapted to different types of goods and work. If you are going to have a class C driver's license, you need to know a little about the most common load carriers.

In this chapter we will look at:

• 6.1 Tip
• 6.2 Crane
• 6.3 Lifting element
• 6.4 Dangerous goods
• 6.5 Rules for length and width, marking and exemption
• 6.6 Training requirements
• 6.7 Control tasks

6. Load carriers and freight transport

6.1 Tip

Tip

Trucks used for transporting various masses often have a tipping platform so that the load can be easily tipped out. The platform itself is most often operated from levers in the driver's cab, but there are also platforms that are controlled by remote control. The platform is raised and lowered using hydraulics.

What do you need to pay attention to when betting?

• Tipping hazard – There is a greater risk of tipping when tipping. The greatest danger is when the load is tipped backwards – then the centre of gravity of the vehicle can become very high. If you feel during tipping that the vehicle is starting to tip over or tilt, you must stop tipping and lower the loading platform immediately. Before trying again, the vehicle must be moved so that it is more stable.
• Axles – Check that all lowerable axles are lowered and that the car is standing firmly on safe ground.
• Overview – Get an overview. Make sure you have control over where you are dumping the load. You must ensure that there are no people near the vehicle.
• Obstacles – Check that there are no electrical wires or other obstacles above the car.
• Load is stuck – Check that the load flows out evenly. When tipping clay and similar materials, it is easy for the material to get stuck before it suddenly releases. This can create unforeseen forces. If the material is only stuck on one side of the plane, the vehicle can become sideways and tip over. You can also experience uneven unloading of the load if the load has become stuck or frozen in some places.
• Cancel – If the vehicle starts to roll/tilt when tipping, you must cancel and lower the cargo bed as quickly as possible.

Tipping safety equipment

To prevent the loading platform from being lifted too high, falling down or the hydraulics from being overloaded, tipper trucks are equipped with several different safety mechanisms.

Tipping support

The tipper support is intended to prevent the tipper from falling down. This is an important function when repairing or performing maintenance between the loading platform and the frame. The tipper support must always be engaged when you are under the tipper - you should not rely on the hydraulic system alone. If the hydraulics fail, people will be trapped.

The tipper support is designed to withstand the weight of the loading platform. If you have cargo in the loading platform, you must not move underneath at all.

Safety wire

To prevent the loading platform from being lifted too high, a wire is installed to hold it down.

Locking bolts

Many tippers are designed to be able to tip the load both backwards and to the sides – whichever is appropriate.

Which way the load is tipped is controlled by the locking bolts: if you lock the rear, only the front will be raised, and the load will be tipped backwards. If you lock one of the sides, the load will be tipped to the other side.

Locking bolts are located at the rear.

6. Load carriers and freight transport

6.2 Crane

Crane

To use a crane with a lifting torque of more than 2 ton-meters, you must have your own crane operator's license.

If you are going to use a crane that does not require a crane operator's license, your employer is still obliged to provide you with the necessary training. Using a crane always requires approved lifting equipment and the right protective equipment (helmet, safety shoes, etc.).

You can drive a car with a permanently mounted crane, even if you do not have the right to use it. But it must be secured.

Tonmeter

Tonne-meters are the length of the crane's arm in meters, multiplied by the lifting capacity in tons. A crane with a 20-meter arm and a capacity of 6 tons has tonne-meters of 20 x 6 = 120.

Safety when using a crane

All cranes mounted on trucks or truck trailers must have a load chart that shows how much weight the crane can handle. Based on the load chart, you can see how heavy a load you can carry and how many meters the crane can be extended with a load.

What do you need to pay attention to when using a crane?

• Be careful with live wires.
• Try to keep – and carry – the load as low as possible.
• When you are finished using the crane, it should be locked in the parking position - if the crane arm moves while you are driving, it can cause dangerous accidents.
• Use lifting equipment (chain, wire rope, webbing slings, etc.) that is approved for the weight.
• If a truck crane is used in a public place, the area must be secured.
• Use jack stands and make sure they are on stable ground. The jack stands will need to be adjusted over time if the weight of the vehicle changes.

6. Load carriers and freight transport

6.3 Lifting element

Lifting element

A tail lift, also called a tail lift, is a door at the rear of a truck. The door can be lowered to ground level, so that goods can be loaded onto it with a forklift, raised and driven into the cargo area. Some tail lifts can be lowered at an angle, creating a ramp for animals or vehicles.

Operating the liftgate

The liftgate must be operated from a fixed control panel, but a remote control can also be used. Along with the fixed control panel, there must be a fixed instruction manual and a load chart showing how much load the liftgate can withstand. The instruction manual tells you how much space you need behind the car to be able to lower the liftgate. This must be taken into account when parking.

Cab switch

All vehicles with a liftgate must have a cab switch. When the switch is off, it is not possible to control the liftgate from the buttons at the rear or from the remote control. The switch must always be off while driving.

The cab switch is also called the control circuit breaker, or main switch.

The liftgate should be checked according to the manufacturer's instructions and serviced when required. The liftgate should be checked by a professional every 12 months.

Training!

Anyone who uses a liftgate should be trained in how to use it. This is important – many injuries occur when using a liftgate.

Security

Unfortunately, there are a number of work accidents as a result of improper use of lifting devices. Crushing injuries are common.

• The load must be self-supporting. You should not need to support it with your body, arms or legs.
• Do not load the lift gate with more than it is designed for.
• Keep all your fingers on the control panel – this way you can be sure that you don't get your fingers pinched between the hatch and the loading platform/cabinet.
• Keep unauthorized persons away. Pay special attention to children. Before using the liftgate, the operator must check that there are no people, vehicles or other obstacles in the working area of ​​the liftgate. Several accidents occur because the operator starts operating the liftgate before these things have been checked.
• Also consider that a limb that remains horizontally out of the loading platform can be a danger to drivers/pedestrians.

6. Load carriers and freight transport

6.4 Dangerous goods

Transport of dangerous goods

Everyone in the transport chain who unloads, loads, temporarily stores or transports dangerous goods must have at least documented training that covers the goods they will be handling. Those who transport dangerous goods must have an ADR course that has been approved by the Directorate for Civil Protection and Emergency Preparedness, DSB.

1000 points

When transporting ADR goods, a points system is used. The substances have points according to how dangerous they are, and when transporting, all the points are added together. This gives you a score that applies to the entire shipment of all goods, which says something about how dangerous the shipment is. You can transport up to 1000 points of dangerous goods without a certificate of competence, as long as you follow the requirements in chapter 1.1.3.6. in the ADR book. Here you can also read how many points the different substances have.

Truck carrying dangerous goods.

The ADR book

This book contains regulations on the land transport of dangerous goods. The regulations are published in book form and are an important resource within ADR. You can find it free of charge on the internet, as a PDF.

Shipping without a certificate of competence

Dangerous goods can be transported without a certificate of competence if the goods are covered by the exemption provisions. There are three different provisions in particular that are being discussed: quantities according to 1.1.3.6, limited quantities and excepted quantities.

1.1.3.6

1.1.3.6 is a chapter in the ADR book, with a table showing special quantities of ADR that can be transported without the full ADR regulations coming into effect. The goods cannot exceed 1000 ADR points. When transported according to 1.1.3.6 you are exempted from some of the ADR provisions:

• You do not need an ADR certificate
• The only ADR equipment you need is a two-piece fire extinguisher.
• You don't need to tag the vehicle
• You do not need a transport permit (but you must have a transport document)
• You can bring passengers

Limited quantities

Limited quantities are goods packed in medium quantities, of 1–5 kg or liters. There is no limit to the number of packages, but they must be packed and marked according to ADR requirements. If so, they are considered ordinary general cargo that is not subject to ADR regulations.

When transporting more than 8 tons, the vehicle or container must be marked with a hazard label on the right side.

Limited quantity labeling

Exempt quantities

Excepted quantities are dangerous goods that are packaged in very small quantities, between 1 and 30 grams or milliliters. A maximum of 1,000 packages can be transported per vehicle or container. In this case, the transport is not subject to ADR regulations, but is considered regular general cargo.

Exempt quantities

Other exceptions!

There are several minor exceptions to ADR that are not mentioned here.

However, if you are going to transport ADR according to the exemption provisions, the consignment note must state why the cargo is exempt, and where in the ADR book the exemption is described. It is the sender who is responsible for ensuring that the cargo is packaged and documented in accordance with the ADR provisions. As a driver, you must be able to rely on the information provided to you by the sender.

ADR competence certificate

To be allowed to transport dangerous goods beyond the exemption provisions, you must have an ADR certificate of competence. You can obtain a certificate of competence by taking a basic course in ADR.

Vehicle marking requirements

Vehicles that are to transport dangerous goods must be marked. The marking is standardized and international, and shows what is being transported.

Orange sign

If you are transporting dangerous goods, you must use orange signs on the front and rear of the vehicle. This informs other road users that dangerous goods are being transported.

Bulk and tank vehicles carrying dangerous goods must have orange signs with numbers, indicating the substance and hazard the cargo contains. The numbers are used internationally, and their meaning is stated in the ADR book.

The top number is the hazard number, and the bottom is a UN number. UN stands for United Nation, and the number shows which substance is being transported. This number is also called the commodity number.

Hazard labels

Tank trucks, bulk trucks and trucks carrying explosive or radioactive materials must have hazard labels showing the hazardous material they are loaded with. Vehicles must be marked on both sides and the rear, and containers and trailers that are to be transported by train or boat must be marked on all four sides.

The hazard labels have different color codes, which indicate how dangerous the substance is. Some of them also have number and letter codes. For example, flammable gas has a red label with the number 2, and flammable liquid has a red label with the number 3.

6. Load carriers and freight transport

6.5 Rules for length and width, marking and exemption

Exemption

Sometimes you have to transport cargo that violates the restrictions stated in the road map. In these cases, you need special permission, a so-called exemption.

Simply put, you need a dispensation if you are going to weigh more or be larger than what is permitted by the road lists, for example longer than the length limitations in table 4 or heavier than the limitations in the axle load table and vehicle weight table.

Rules for labeling and exemption

You only need an exemption if the size or weight of your load is not permitted. You need markings on both permitted and non-permitted loads.

Here are some of the most important rules:

• Loads that protrude from the front must be marked with a cylinder with white and red stripes. If the load protrudes more than 1 meter, you must have an exemption.
• Loads that extend 15 cm or more beyond the sides of the vehicle must be marked. The marking must have red and yellow stripes, front and rear and on both sides of the goods.
• Loads that protrude more than 1 meter behind the vehicle must be marked. The markings must be red and white.
• The permitted width on Norwegian roads is 2.55 meters. Trucks with extra thick walls, such as thermal transport, can be 2.60 meters. If a vehicle with a load is wider than 2.6, it must have flashing yellow lights, and a dispensation is required.
• The one-piece rule: when shipping indivisible goods, you can be up to 3.25 meters wide without an exemption.
• If the vehicle and load are over 3 meters wide, you must have an accompanying vehicle, and both vehicles must have WIDE LOAD signs.
• In poor visibility, there are extra strict requirements for marking. In that case, you must mark the load with lights.

Driving with a dispensation

Even if you have an exemption, you must adhere to other regulations:

• You cannot exceed the weight restrictions stated in the vehicle registration document.
• You must ensure that at least 20% of the current total weight rests on the steering wheels.
• The driver must be able to maneuver the vehicle safely.
• The load must not drag or pose a danger.
• The driver must have adequate visibility.

Indivisible property

Indivisible goods are large units of goods that cannot be divided, or that it is not practical to divide, and which must therefore be transported as a large whole.

Release exemption

If you are transporting indivisible goods, you do not need to apply for an exemption, even if the goods go beyond the limits on Norwegian roads. This exemption is called the one-package rule. It states that you can transport large, indivisible goods with vehicles that are within the limits stated in the tables for indivisible goods, in the regulations on the use of vehicles.

Hooklift and container

A truck can carry containers of different lengths. You must always stay within the length limit for the vehicle.

Maximum distance from underrun obstacle

In addition, the distance from the rearmost point of the container or rearmost point of the hook lift platform to the underrun obstacle on the truck must not be more than 40 cm.

This is to ensure that a car that collides with the truck from behind is stopped by the underrun barrier, instead of ending up completely under the plane. If it ends up completely under the plane, it will be split in two – and thus a total wreck.

Here the distance is too long, so this car would be banned from driving.

6. Load carriers and freight transport

6.6 Training requirements

Training

To use a crane, forklift, lifting platform and similar machines, you must be at least 18 years old and physically and mentally fit to use the equipment.

Certification and training

Some machines, such as large cranes, require a certificate of competence to use. To get this, you must take a certified course. But regardless of whether a machine requires a certificate of competence or not, you are entitled to training from your employer. Machines can be dangerous if used incorrectly.

You should also have access to safety equipment such as a helmet and safety shoes, and training in how to use safety equipment correctly.

7. Legislation and fees

7.0 Introduction

Chapter 7: Legislation and fees

As a heavy truck driver on Norwegian roads, there are many laws and regulations that you must know and abide by.

In this chapter we will look at:

• 7.1 The driver's license
• 7.2 Duties
• 7.3 Signs
• 7.4 Responsibility for vehicles and cargo
• 7.5 Fees, permits and insurance
• 7.6 Public reactions
• 7.7 Control tasks

7. Legislation and fees

7.1 The driver's license

Right to drive a truck

To drive a truck, you must have a class C driver's license. This gives you the right to drive:

• Motor vehicle with a permissible total weight of over 3500 kg and which is approved for the transport of a maximum of 8 passengers in addition to the driver.
• A vehicle combination consisting of a motor vehicle covered by the point above and a trailer with a maximum permitted total weight of 750 kg. If you extend your driving licence to CE, there is no limit to how heavy the trailer can be.
• In Norway, the driving license also includes driving tractors and motorized equipment in general, possibly with a trailer when the vehicle's design speed is no more than 40 km/h.

Who can get a class C driver's license?

To obtain a class C driver's license, you must be 21 years old, or have completed or begun approved professional driver training.

You must also be in good enough health: you must have good enough vision, good enough hearing and mobility, and you must not have any substance abuse or behavioral disorders. A health certificate is submitted with your application for a driver's license.

Professional driver!

A class C driver's license does not give you the right to work as a heavy truck driver. You must then qualify as a professional driver first.

Constructive speed

The highest speed the vehicle is designed to travel.

Driver's license validity

The driving license is valid for 5 years. The validity may be shorter if:

• it is necessary due to health reasons.
• you have not documented that you have completed a slippery driving course or a track safety course when you get your driver's license. In this case, the validity is set to one year. If you submit documentation of having completed the course afterwards, you can get validity for 5 years.
• you are between 66 and 71 years old. In that case, the validity is set to the day before you turn 71. From the age of 71 and up, the driver's license is valid for one year.

The driver's license must be renewed before the validity period ends - otherwise you will lose your driver's license. When renewing, you must submit a health certificate to the traffic police station. If it has been more than a year since your driver's license expired, you must take a new driving test.

7. Legislation and fees

7.2 Duties

§ 3 Basic rules for traffic

Section 3 of the Road Traffic Act is called the basic rules for traffic. This is a very general rule, which applies to everyone who travels where there is traffic. Many people are punished for violating this section. It is as follows:

Everyone must travel with consideration and be alert and cautious so that no danger arises or damage is caused and so that other traffic is not unnecessarily obstructed or disturbed.

Road users must also show consideration for those who live or stay by the road.

Attentive, considerate and careful

The point of the law is that you should be attentive, considerate and careful when you are in traffic.

Attentive means that you are aware and prepared, so that you can react quickly to sudden events. Considerate means that you should show consideration for other road users, regardless of the duty to yield and other traffic rules. Cautious means that you should be careful and drive safely.

You must be fit to drive.

The Road Traffic Act states:

No one may drive or attempt to drive a vehicle when he is in such a condition that he cannot be considered fit to drive safely, whether this is due to him being under the influence of alcohol or other intoxicating or narcotic substances, or to him being ill, weakened, tired or fatigued, or due to other circumstances.

Suitable

This law says you must be fit to drive. That means you must be in good shape. You cannot be drunk, or so tired or sick that you cannot keep up.

Intoxication

The Road Traffic Act stipulates that drivers of motor vehicles may not be under the influence of alcohol or other drugs.

You must also abstain from alcohol for 6 hours after parking your truck, if you have been involved in an accident, or if you have reason to believe that your driving may be investigated by the authorities.

Mandatory abstinence

The Road Traffic Act also has its own provisions for professional drivers and intoxication. They state that you must not consume alcohol during duty hours, or in the last 8 hours before duty hours. Duty hours are the time you are at work – that is, the time when you are driving or may be asked to drive or do other work.

Abstain from alcohol

• 8 hours before driving
• 6 hours after driving you think needs to be investigated.

Seat belt

Seat belt regulations state that you must wear a seat belt if your vehicle has one. You are also responsible for ensuring that children under the age of 15 wear a seat belt. You can be fined for not wearing a seat belt.

The belt requirement does not apply to work tools such as tractors and construction machinery.

You do not need to wear a seat belt if:

• the vehicle is stationary
• you are backing up
• you drive at low speed and have to leave the vehicle frequently
• you are driving in a garage, parking lot, gas station or other confined space
• you have a doctor's certificate stating that you cannot wear a seat belt
• you are a companion in practice driving, and cannot reach the steering wheel if you are wearing a seat belt. Applies to classes C, C1, D, D1, CE, C1E, DE and D1E

Duties in the event of an accident

The Road Traffic Act determines that you have obligations in the event of a traffic accident:

Anyone who is involved in a traffic accident, whether at fault or not, must immediately stop and help injured persons and animals, and otherwise participate in the measures that the accident gives rise to.

This duty also applies, if necessary, to others who are nearby or who come to the location.

You have a duty to help.

You are supposed to help people and animals who have been in an accident or who need help. If you fail to help, you could lose your driver's license forever.

Furthermore, the law requires that you remain at the scene of the accident until you receive permission from the police to leave, and that you contribute to ensuring that technical traces are not removed. You are also required to identify yourself to the police at the scene.

Professional driver!

Professional drivers have a special duty to help.

Special speed regulations

The Road Traffic Act stipulates that some vehicles have their own speed limits:

Motor vehicles with a permissible total weight of over 3,500 kg cannot drive faster than 80 km/h. Motor vehicles with a trailer cannot drive faster than 80 km/h.

So even if the speed limit in the area is more than 80 km/h, you cannot drive faster than 80 km/h with such vehicles. If the speed limit is lower than 80 km/h, you obviously cannot drive at 80 km/h.

7. Legislation and fees

7.3 Signs (1/3)

Sign

You know most of the signs from your class B training. But now that you are going to drive a truck, there are several signs that will become relevant to you, which have not been so important before. Here we will go through them.

Prohibition sign: weight

Total vehicle weight limit

The vehicle cannot have a current total weight that is higher than the weight stated on the plate. If you have a truck combination, each of the vehicles in the truck combination can weigh what is stated.

Total weight limit for truck combinations

The vehicle combination cannot have a total current total weight that is higher than the weight indicated on the sign. This sign does not refer to the individual vehicles as in the sign above, but to the total weight of the entire vehicle combination. Nor can you have individual vehicles that are heavier than the weight indicated in the picture.

Axle load limit

Prohibited with axle loads higher than 3 tons. If you have a bogie, you must multiply by 1.5 to find the permitted axle load: 3 x 1.5 = 4.5 tons maximum permitted axle load.

If you have a triple bogie, you must use 2. That makes 3 x 2 = 6 tons of permitted axle load.

Bogie load limit

Vehicles with a current bogie load above the specified weight cannot drive on the road where this sign is located.

Prohibited for motor vehicles with more than two wheels and with a permissible total weight higher than stated.

If the road or lane has this sign, it is prohibited to drive motor vehicles with a permissible total weight of more than 3.5 tonnes. Trucks are therefore prohibited.

Prohibition sign: size

Width limit

Vehicles cannot be wider than specified. The same applies to any cargo in the vehicle.

Height limit

Vehicles with goods cannot be higher than specified.

The sign indicates the height limit for the vehicle, not the height of the tunnel.

Length limit

Vehicles or truck combinations cannot be longer than specified. This also applies to any goods.

Prohibition signs: rules for certain vehicles

Prohibited for trucks and tractor units

Trucks and tractors are not allowed to drive on the road where this sign is located.

Prohibited for the transport of dangerous goods

Transport marked with orange signs due to dangerous goods cannot drive on roads where this sign is displayed.

No passing truck

Trucks with a permissible total weight of over 3,500 kg cannot overtake motor vehicles with more than two wheels.

End of overtaking ban on trucks

The overtaking ban as described above has ended.

Prohibition sign: stop

Stop for specified purpose

The sign requires you to stop for what is indicated on the sign. In this example, the driver must stop for inspection.

Stop for customs

The vehicle must stop for customs clearance or for applicable customs regulations.

7. Legislation and fees

7.3 Signs (2/3)

Road sign

Detour route for large vehicles

This sign is used where large vehicles cannot use ordinary roads.

Route for the transport of dangerous goods

This sign shows a separate route for the transport of dangerous goods.

Other detour routes

In the picture you see six different signs, all of which are called other detour routes. These are used when one place has many detours to different destinations, for example during major roadworks. At the start of the detours you will be informed which signs lead where.

Detours for specific vehicle groups

The sign shows a detour for vehicles taller than 3.5 meters.

Temporary detour

This sign shows the same thing as the one above, but this is used where the detour is only temporary.

End of temporary detour

End of temporary detour.

7. Legislation and fees

7.3 Signs (3/3)

Sub-sign

Sub-signs are placed under other signs. They show different things.

Van, truck and tractor unit

When this sub-sign is placed under a sign, it means that the sign applies to vans, trucks and tractor units. You can find this sub-sign under the signs parking allowed and parking prohibited, among other things.

Wagon train

The sign is the same as the one above, but it shows that a sign applies to truck traffic.

Truck

Vehicles with a permissible total weight of over 3500 kg. Trucks are driving license class C.

A truck with a permissible total weight of up to 7500 kg is called a light truck.

Tractor truck

Also called a tractor. A tractor is a short truck that is designed to pull a semi-trailer. They are not designed to carry cargo on top of the plane, like regular trucks are.

Sub-sign for danger sign

Grade

This sign is located below the danger sign warning of a steep slope, and shows that the slope has a 10% gradient.

Grade

This sign warns of a steep hill, and encourages you to use a low gear. Heavy vehicles should brake in gear on downhill slopes, so they don't wear out the brakes. If the load is too great over time, they can fail.

Real free road width

The sign is often placed where the road is narrower than it appears, or narrower than standard. The sign also refers to the fact that the movement space above the road is narrow, for example due to a rock face.

Brake on the gear

If you put the vehicle in a low gear, the speed decreases. This allows you to brake without using the brakes. This is a good idea – because as heavy vehicles are very heavy, the brakes can be damaged if they are used too much and for too long. On long downhill slopes, heavy vehicles should brake in gear.

7. Legislation and fees

7.4 Responsibility for vehicles and cargo

Safe and proper condition

The Road Traffic Act stipulates that the vehicle must be safe and in proper condition.

Roadworthy means that the vehicle is in good technical condition. That is, that everything works and is as it should be. Safe condition means that the vehicle and its load are safe to drive.

There is a difference between safe and compliant: a truck with a broken headlight is not in compliant condition, but it may still be safe to drive – if it is daytime and there is good lighting conditions where you are going to drive. The driver must assess whether the vehicle is in safe condition – and if it is not, it is prohibited to drive.

Driver and owner responsibilities

The owner is responsible for ensuring that the vehicle is in a safe and proper condition. However, once the vehicle is handed over to the driver, the driver is responsible.

Charge for nuisance

The authorities may charge a fee for overloading a single axle and total weight. The fee increases with the number of kilograms of overload, and it is even higher if the vehicle has been caught overloading before. The owner must pay the fee.

If someone other than the owner has taken over the right to use the vehicle, for example through leasing, the person with the right to use the vehicle is the one who must pay the fee. This is often called the carrier.

When shipping sealed or locked containers with excess cargo, the sender may be liable for the fee.

If the overload is dangerous, the driver can be fined for reckless driving. If it is particularly serious, the driver can lose his/her driving license.

Prohibition on the use of vehicles

The Road Traffic Act states that the police can prohibit the use of a vehicle, if necessary. There are many possible reasons for a ban, some of which are:

• The motor vehicle is not registered.
• The motor vehicle is refused for inspection.
• The vehicle is not in proper condition and the load is not properly secured.
• The vehicle's wheels do not have sufficient traction.
• The vehicle has not been weighed according to government requirements, or if the overload fee has not been paid.
• Safety or environmental modifications have been made to the vehicle by an unapproved workshop.
• Rules for axle load, total weight, or placement of load are violated
• The vehicle has been driven recklessly.
• Driving and rest time rules are not complied with

The length of the ban varies from case to case. The ban applies to the use of a specific vehicle, not the revocation of a driver's license.

This car is banned from driving because it is not safe.

7. Legislation and fees

7.5 Fees, license and insurance (1/2)

Fees

Vehicle taxes are part of Norway's tax and duty system. Many of the expenses related to heavy vehicles are taxes.

• The annual weight tax is paid twice a year. How much you pay depends on the weight, number of axles and suspension system.
• The environmentally differentiated tax applies to diesel-powered vehicles weighing 7,500 kg and above. The tax is adjusted according to the emission requirement level.
• Fuel taxes are paid through the purchase of fuel, as an additional charge. The taxes are intended to help cover costs related to pollution.

Reduced tax base

If you mainly drive on roads with a low permissible gross weight, or often have light goods, it may be worthwhile to reduce the vehicle's permissible gross weight. This is done through technical interventions, and the change is documented in the vehicle registration document. A car with a low permissible gross weight has a smaller tax base. If you make the change, you must of course always limit yourself to the new weight.

Leave

Almost all permanent transport activities that are carried out for remuneration, i.e. against payment, require a permit. To operate a freight transport operation by truck, you need a freight permit. To obtain this, you must have:

• relevant professional qualifications
• good enough finances to run the business properly
• good conduct

Each permit is valid for one vehicle, and the vehicle registration number is stated on the permit. The permit must be kept in the vehicle and must be presented during inspection. The permit issued for the transport of goods is a so-called Community permit, which is valid throughout the EU and EEA.

7. Legislation and fees

7.5 Fees, license and insurance (2/2)

Insurance

Insurance is a large part of the expenses when operating a heavy vehicle, and there are many different types of insurance for vehicles and transport. You must ensure that you always operate within the area that the insurance covers.

Liability insurance and hull insurance

The Motor Vehicle Liability Act requires that everyone who is injured by a motor vehicle should receive compensation, regardless of fault.

Liability insurance, or traffic insurance as it is also called, is supposed to take care of this. All cars with registration plates must have liability insurance. Your liability insurance covers damage to other road users and vehicles, if you are at fault in the accident. It also covers you as the driver, and any passengers. Liability insurance does not cover damage to your own vehicle.

Full and partial comprehensive insurance covers damage to your own vehicle regardless of fault, but this insurance is voluntary. Partial comprehensive insurance covers, among other things, fire and theft, damage to buildings and belongings, and roadside assistance.

Full insurance covers everything that partial insurance covers, in addition to collision, skidding and rollover.

Cargo liability insurance and carrier insurance

The cargo in the truck also has value – and should be insured.

Cargo liability insurance

As the carrier is responsible for the goods during transport, the carrier should have cargo liability insurance to protect against large financial claims. The carrier's cargo liability insurance does not cover damage to the goods due to alcohol, lack of maintenance, overloading or downtime.

Carrier insurance

If the carrier does not have cargo liability insurance, and something happens during transport, the cargo owner may be liable for compensation. To insure against such liability, the cargo owner can take out carrier insurance. The cargo owner should also insure the goods, even when the carrier has cargo liability insurance.

Additional insurances

There are many trucking businesses that require additional insurance. If you are going to drive outside the Nordic countries, you must have a so-called green card, which is an additional insurance that makes it valid for international transport. You need this because driving outside the Nordic countries poses an increased risk to the vehicle and cargo. If you are going to plow snow, you must have an additional insurance for plowing snow in your insurance. The same applies to the transport of dangerous goods.

Documentation in the event of a stop and collision

In order for liability to be correctly distributed in the event of a breakdown or collision, documentation is important. Insurance companies need it to process the case.

Claim form

In the event of a collision, you should write down the names and addresses of people who may have seen the accident, and take photographs with your mobile phone. You should take photographs of the surroundings and other things that can help determine liability. You must also fill out a damage report form. On the damage report form, you can draw a picture of the accident situation and write down what happened. You will receive a damage report form as part of your insurance documents, and it should always be in your car. You should also have the telephone number for roadside assistance and towing available. Most insurance companies cover this, and offer a separate telephone number.

In the event of a collision or breakdown, you should also call the transport company you drive for. They can provide information about procedures, contact a rescue vehicle and possibly send a new truck for the goods.

7. Legislation and fees

7.6 Public reactions

Public reactions

If you break the law or commit minor offenses, you may face repercussions from the authorities. Here we will look at:

• Fine
• Simplified penalty notice
• Fee
• Lock-in period
• Loss of driving license

Fine and simplified penalty notice

A fine is considered a punishment from the authorities. It is often used in conjunction with imprisonment, and you have the right to a trial before being fined.

If you are caught speeding or similar, the police may ask you if you accept a simplified fine. This means that you accept a fine without a trial, and that you and the authorities settle it there and then. You will receive the fine on a bill, and you can continue driving.

If you do not accept, the case will be taken up in court and treated like other criminal cases. The vast majority accept a simplified fine.

It is common to offer simplified fines in minor cases, such as running a red light, illegal overtaking or speeding.

Fee

A fee is not a penalty. The fee you pay should in principle cover an expense you incur in one way or another.

It is common to get fines for minor issues, such as parking violations. You can also get fines for congestion. If you don't pay the fine, the fine will increase, and eventually the authorities can take a lien on your vehicle.

Fee for incorrect parking.

Lock-in period

A suspension period is when the authorities refuse to grant you a driver's license. If you drive a truck without a class C license, you may be subject to a suspension period for your class C license. This means that you cannot obtain a class C license until the suspension period is over.

You may also be banned from driving if you lose your driver's license. In that case, you cannot get a new driver's license until the ban period is over.

If you are caught speeding in a motor vehicle for which you do not have a driver's license, and the speeding would have led to the revocation of your driver's license if you had had a driver's license, the suspension period will be at least as long as the driver's license had been revoked.

Loss of driving license

Loss of driving privileges usually occurs in connection with a court case and conviction, for more serious violations. If you lose your driving privileges, you cannot drive any vehicle that requires a driver's license.

If you are caught twice in five years for exceeding the speed limit that is grounds for the revocation of your driving license, you may lose your driving license forever. You will also lose your driving license forever if you fail to help in a traffic accident that you are responsible for.

If you refuse a breathalyzer test or blood test when you are suspected of drink-driving, you can lose your driving license for two years. If you are convicted of drink-driving, you lose it for one year.

Truck driver without a license?

If you work as a truck driver, it's pretty stupid to lose your driving license. If it's your own fault that you've lost it, for example because you've driven under the influence of alcohol, there's a good chance your employer will fire you. If you're self-employed, you could lose a lot of income if you don't have a driver's license - and if the loss is your fault, you may not get anything back on your insurance.

If you are very lucky, your employer will assign you to other work until your driver's license is returned.

8. Driving and rest time

8.0 Introduction

Chapter 8: Driving and rest periods

Trucks often transport large amounts of valuables, and accidents involving heavy vehicles can have serious consequences. You risk both life and great financial assets if you are not careful. Driving and rest time regulations ensure that drivers have free time and rest.

In this chapter we will go through:

• 8.1 Regulation of working hours
• 8.2 Driving time, working time and rest time
• 8.3 Daily rest and weekly rest
• 8.4 Tachograph
• 8.5 Example of driving and rest time calculation
• 8.6 Control tasks

8. Driving and rest time

8.1 Regulation of working hours

Regulation of working hours

The driving and rest time regulations apply to all goods transport by road where the total permissible gross weight for the entire vehicle/vehicle combination is over 3500 kg. There are many regulations. We will go through the most important ones in this chapter, but if you are still interested in the legislation, you can find it here:

• The Working Environment Act
• Regulations on working hours in road transport
• Regulations on driving and rest times in the EEA
• Regulations on the implementation of the European Agreement on Driving and Rest Times

Exception

Some vehicle groups are exempt from the driving and rest time regulations. The ones that are most relevant to you are:

Exceptions throughout the EU/EEA:

• Vehicles used in disaster relief, rescue operations or non-commercial humanitarian aid
• Vehicles used for the regular transport of passengers, when the length of the route does not exceed 50 kilometres. This also applies to the regular transport of special groups of people, for example the transport of military personnel.
• Special vehicles for medical purposes
• Vehicles that assist in car breakdowns, operating within a radius of 100 km from the location
• Vehicles being tested in connection with technical improvements or maintenance, and new or converted vehicles that have not yet been put into service
• Vehicles or combinations of vehicles with a maximum permissible weight not exceeding 7.5 tonnes, used for the non-commercial carriage of goods
• Vehicles owned or rented without a driver by the armed forces, civil defense, fire brigade and law enforcement, when the transport is in connection with work

Exceptions in Norway:

• Vehicles owned or leased without a driver by public authorities to perform road transport operations that do not compete with private transport undertakings
• Vehicles used or rented without a driver by agricultural, horticultural, forestry, aquaculture or fisheries enterprises for the transport of goods related to the enterprises' own business activities within a radius of 100 km from their place of residence
• Vehicles that use alternative, environmentally friendly fuels, and drive within a radius of 100 km from their home base, can weigh up to 4.25 tonnes before the driving and rest time regulations apply.
• Vehicles used for traffic training and driving tests with a view to obtaining a driving licence or professional diploma, as long as the vehicles are not used for commercial transport
• Vehicles used in connection with sewage treatment, flood protection, water, gas and electricity supply, road maintenance and inspection, household waste collection and disposal, telegraph and telephone services, radio and television broadcasting and the location of radio or television transmitters or receivers