Truck theory course - Class C

Welcome to the e-book for driver's license class C, truck. Here we will go through the lorry syllabus with text, video, sound and images, so that you get the knowledge you need to become a good road user and pass the theory test.

In this first chapter we will look at:

  • 1.1 The curriculum in class C
  • 1.2 Repetition from class B
  • 1.3 Control tasks

1. Introduction

1.1 The curriculum in class C

The curriculum

The curriculum for class C contains everything you will learn, both theory and practice. It is divided into four parts:

  • Step 1 Basic course heavy vehicles
  • Step 2 Basic vehicle and driving skills
  • Step 3 Traffic competence
  • Step 4 Final training

You are not expected to know the syllabus for class C on rams, but it may be useful to use it as a reference book. All topics in this curriculum can be tested in both practical and theoretical tests.

What are you going to learn?

Step 1

The first step in heavy vehicle training is the basic heavy vehicle course. If you have already completed the basic course in one of the other heavy vehicle classes, you do not have to take it again now.

Step 2

In the second stage, you will learn to master the vehicle. Everything from starting and stopping to driving in bends and hills is covered in this step. Here you will also learn about the vehicle's construction and operation. The stage ends with a compulsory stage assessment class.

Step 3

In stage 3, you learn to drive in traffic. To be able to do this in the best possible way, you will also learn here about legislation, calculation and placement of loads, and planning of driving.

Step 4

In the last step, you will go through a course. Courses in accident preparedness, first aid, road safety courses, load securing courses and track safety courses.

1. Introduction

1.2 Repetition from class B (1/2)

Class B

Are you coming straight from the Class B driveway and lack practical experience from traffic? Or have you driven a car for many years, but have forgotten much of the syllabus? When you take the class C pass, you are expected to remember a large part of the material from class B. Here we will look at the most important - that is, what is most relevant, when you are going out in traffic with a heavy vehicle.

  • Interaction: In what ways can you communicate with your fellow road users?
  • The driving process: What elements can disturb or delay you in traffic situations?
  • See the rules: How can you predict different traffic situations?
  • Obligation to give way: Do you need to stop for a bus flashing out of the bus pocket on the country road?
  • Regulation of traffic: Can you stop on a motorway to drop off goods?

1. Introduction

1.2 Repetition from class B (2/2)

Interaction

Interaction between road users is crucial for good traffic flow and safety. When you drive a heavy vehicle, you are extra visible in traffic, and some road users will be extra aware of your driving. You should therefore be aware of which signals you send out to your fellow road users. You should also use your attention to get help from other road users, as this increases the flow of traffic.

Typical situations where you can contribute to good interaction:

  • Road with several lanes in the same direction: Stay in the right lane if you can, so that traffic can pass you on the left. When merging, it is important that you drive predictably, so that the traffic you merge with feels safe.
  • Obligation to give way: If you are obliged to give way, slow down in good time and show the other road users that you comply with the obligation to give way. If you drive too aggressively, the traffic you have to give way to may stop. This results in poor traffic flow.

The driving process

The driving process is the process from discovering a traffic situation to taking action. For example, the time it takes from the time you see a moose in the road until you have stepped on the brakes.

When you drive a car, your brain has to process many driving processes at the same time. If you are attentive, alert and clear, you spend less time perceiving and making decisions. It is good for road safety. Experience also helps to influence how long one spends on the driving process.

The driving process is divided into four:

  • Sense: Your eye is receiving information, but your brain hasn't processed it yet.
  • Perceive: The brain recognizes what you see and what is happening.
  • Decides: You consider various solutions for further action, and choose one of them.
  • Act: You implement what you have decided to do.

See the rules

When you travel in traffic, you must constantly obtain information about the traffic situation. You get 90% of this information through your vision. You interpret the behavior of other road users and adapt your own driving accordingly. If you follow the se rules, it will be easier to keep an overview and to predict the traffic. The se rules are:

  • Look far ahead.
  • Move your gaze.
  • Take an overview.
  • Be seen and understood.
  • Always look for a way out.

Obligation to give way

If you have a duty to yield, you must not obstruct or disturb the road user for whom you have a duty to yield.

It is important to communicate that you will comply with the duty to yield. You should therefore slow down in good time. Then you avoid other road users slowing down because they are unsure. If they have to slow down because of you, you have actually breached the duty to yield - because it requires you not to disturb the traffic you are giving way to.

If the speed limit is 60 km/h or less, you are obliged to give way to the bus from the bus stop.

Traffic regulation

Many people struggle with this subject when they have to take the theory test for class B. Even though regulation of traffic is not on the curriculum for class C, this is basic knowledge that you must have before you start the truck patch. But what do we mean by regulation of traffic?

  • Police, traffic rules, traffic lights, signs and road markings
  • The relationship between these – the pyramid of authority
  • Rules for stopping and parking
  • Rules for driving on the motorway
  • Level crossing crossing

Do you remember the government pyramid?

Plan transition

A level crossing is a place where a road crosses a train, rail or tram track.

2. The driving

2.0 Introduction

Chapter 2: The drive

Driving a heavy vehicle presents a good number of traffic challenges that you are not used to from class B. Driving itself is probably best learned through practical exercises and driving lessons, but it is good to know something about the various challenges you will face in the city and on country roads.

In this chapter we will look at:

  • 2.1 The truck's size
  • 2.2 Blind spots
  • 2.3 The truck's weight
  • 2.4 Reversing, overturning and overtaking
  • 2.5 Control tasks

2. The driving

2.1 The size of the truck (1/4)

A large car takes up more space

Trucks take up much more space than cars. This means that you have to drive in a slightly different way than you do with a car. For example, you have to swing slightly differently, take slightly different considerations, and plan even better.

Do you remember the Road Traffic Act's basic rules for traffic?

§ 3 The basic rule for traffic

Everyone must travel with consideration and be alert and careful so that no danger can arise or damage be caused and so that other traffic is not unnecessarily obstructed or disturbed.

Driving a big car

2. The driving

2.1 The size of the truck (2/4)

Intersections and roundabouts

Your size creates extra challenges at intersections. There is a lot to think about:

  • Borrow space: Since the truck has a long distance between the axles, it has a large turning radius. This means that it often has to borrow space from other lanes. When you borrow space, you must be alert, seek interaction, and plan well. Which lane you borrow space from depends on the layout of the intersection, the view you have of the crossing road and the willingness of other road users to interact with you.
  • Overhang: On trucks, a large part of the body protrudes in front and behind the axles. When turning to the right, the overhang can swerve across the lane to the left of the truck. If you turn left, the overhang can hit the pavement or signs. It is important to remember the overhang when driving a truck.
  • Be prepared: You need to think about location, conflicts and obstacles before entering an intersection. Then you can avoid creating problems or dangerous situations.

Turning radius

How tight you can swing. Large cars tend to have a large turning radius - they therefore need a lot of room to turn.

Car body

The car's exterior parts. The body is usually made of steel, aluminum or plastic.

2. The driving

2.1 The size of the truck (3/4)

Distance to road users

You should maintain a distance of 5 seconds or more to the driver in front. Trucks have a great potential for damage, so it is important to have an extra margin of safety. If the road is bad, you should keep an even longer distance.

Distance also gives you room to run your own race: speed up before going uphill, and slow down before going down. Without disturbing other traffic.

  • Distance before uphills: Before longer uphills, it may be a good idea to drop even further behind the traffic ahead. Then you can give in a little extra before the hill starts without getting too close to the traffic in front, and you get the speed into the hill.
  • Distance on the sides of the vehicle: When passing slow-moving road users, you must remember that your vehicle creates air pressure that can be uncomfortable for the person you pass. If you are going to pass soft road users, you should keep a distance of at least 1.5 metres. And if you can ditch overtaking, that's the very best.
  • Crossings and level crossings: In some situations, you must stop before a crossing or level crossing, if there is no room for you on the other side of the crossing. Then you avoid being left standing in the middle of the intersection, in the way of crossing vehicles.
  • Show consideration: Large vehicles can be frightening for other road users. You must be aware of this when you drive, especially when you are in places with many soft road users. Even if you feel you are in control, both people and animals can get scared.

Traffic rules!

The traffic rules require that the driver must be able to stop on the stretch of road that the driver has an overview of, and in front of any foreseeable obstacle.

Damage potential

The ability of something to cause damage by accident. A large and heavy car has a great potential for damage, because it can quickly cause a lot of damage in the event of an accident.

2. The driving

2.1 The size of the truck (4/4)

Narrow roadway

On narrow stretches of road, it is difficult to pass oncoming vehicles without the risk of collision. Then there are several things that are important to remember:

  • Avoid the shoulder: It can be tempting to pull over to the far right in the lane to avoid stopping for oncoming traffic. However, you should avoid this. The road shoulder may be weak, and it is not certain that it can withstand the weight of a fully loaded truck.
  • Speed: When two large vehicles meet on a narrow road, both must slow down and ensure that the passage can be made safely. If necessary, one must stop.
  • Imprecise: If the road is imprecise and narrow, slow down. You must be able to stop for unforeseen obstacles.
  • Meeting places and bus shelters: On long, narrow stretches, you should use meeting places and bus shelters to let the traffic behind you pass.

Dotted line on either side of the road means that the road is narrower than 6 metres.

Road shoulder

The road shoulder is the part of the road that lies outside the curb line. The road shoulder is therefore not intended for motorized vehicles. Pedestrians must basically walk on the shoulder of the road and cyclists can choose to cycle on the shoulder of the road.

2. The driving

2.2 Blind spots

Blind spots

Blind spots are a problem for all motorized road users - but it is particularly relevant for drivers of heavy vehicles. Trucks have large blind spots that can be difficult to keep track of, even with mirrors and a reversing camera.

  • Pedestrians: When you stop in front of a pedestrian crossing, you must be aware that you are sitting so high that you may not see if someone is standing directly in front of your vehicle.
  • Turning right: If you are turning right at a junction or roundabout, it is very important to have an overview. Cyclists and two-wheelers easily disappear in the blind spot on the right side of the vehicle.
  • Slow down: If you are unsure whether there are vehicles in the blind spots on the side, you can slow down a little so that they appear in the side mirror or come up to the side of you.

Focus

Imagine that with the help of mirrors and cameras we removed all the blind spots around the truck. Then everything would be so much easier, wouldn't it?

The main problem is that it is difficult to focus around the entire vehicle while keeping your gaze straight ahead. So you must drive carefully anyway, and always be aware that you may have road users around you.

And remember!! It is not certain that the road users in your blind spot know that they are in your blind spot. They may think you can see them and act accordingly.

Road users A, B and D are in the train's blind spot.

View from the cab

The wing mirror can perfectly hide a person.

And so can the pole.

Here you can see the blind spot at the front of the truck. This blind spot is very high. At the bottom of the pane by the left windshield wiper, you see the hands of an adult man stretching his arms.

Person behind the right post:

And the right mirror:

The blind spots in the truck are large - and you should avoid things that make them even bigger. Drop unnecessary decorations or instruments on top of the dashboard.

2. The driving

2.3 The truck's weight (1/4)

Driving a heavy car

A fully loaded lorry is very heavy, and receives large movement forces when it is moving. This means that it has great damage potential: it can damage and destroy a lot, should something go wrong.

In addition to that, the weight means that the trucks struggle on the road network in Norway. Virtually all wear and tear on Norwegian roads comes from heavy vehicles.

You can't do anything about road wear in Norway - but as a truck driver you have to be aware of the forces you're putting on when you drive a heavy truck. You must drive carefully and safely, and always comply with the weight restrictions on the road network and vehicle.

2. The driving

2.3 Weight of the truck (2/4)

The speed - accelerate

Large vehicles take longer to get up to speed than smaller vehicles. Therefore, there are a number of things you must watch out for:

Avoid stopping before intersections

As far as possible, you should slow down well in advance of a crossing or a pedestrian crossing. This way you can avoid a complete standstill, and contribute to traffic flow. It is also more environmentally friendly. Stopping and starting a heavy vehicle requires a lot of power and takes a long time.

Keep moving

It's a good idea to slow down before you have to, for example in front of intersections. But don't slow down if you don't have to - your truck uses a lot of power on acceleration.

Interact

Because your vehicle is so heavy and slow, you need time to start and to get up to speed. Therefore, you need a large hatch if you are going to cross or drive into a lane. In some situations, you depend on crossing traffic to interact with you and let you in.

If you are going to cross level crossings or other dangerous obstacles where interaction is more difficult to achieve, you must be extra careful and know your limitations.

The speed - slow down

In order to drive gently and safely with a heavy vehicle, you must plan your speed reduction in particularly good time. A good HGV driver is alert and able to read the traffic and adjust speed early. If you start the speed reduction early enough, you can avoid a complete stop of the vehicle.

Downhill slopes

Before a long and steep downhill, you should make sure to slow down, so you reduce the need to use the service brake on the downhill. Reduce the speed a little too much rather than a little too little, and let the auxiliary brakes keep the speed down. Heavy vehicles should not brake down an entire hill - this can damage the brakes.

Deceleration!

Another word for slowing down is deceleration.

Service brake

Heavy vehicles have several braking systems. The service brakes are the brakes you activate when you press the brake pedal, which brake the wheels directly using a brake disc. It is also called a foot brake.

The service brake has two brake circuits.

Auxiliary brake

The auxiliary brakes should save the normal brakes (the service brake), which can be damaged if they are used too much and for too long. There are several types of auxiliary brake: engine brake, electromagnetic brake and turbine brake.

Brake length

When talking about stopping a vehicle before an obstacle, i.e. emergency braking, the terms inattention distance, reaction distance, braking distance and stopping distance are often used. You may remember these terms from the training in class B - and now that you will be driving a truck, they are at least as important.

  • Inattention span: when a hazard occurs, it takes some time before you notice it. The distance you drive in this time is called inattention length, or inattention period.
  • Reaction time: once you've spotted the danger, your brain takes some time to process the situation and decide to slow down. The reaction length is the distance you leave behind you during this time.
  • Braking distance: the distance you need to stop the vehicle after you have stepped on the brake.
  • Stopping distance: reaction distance and braking distance combined.

During planned and controlled braking, for example at traffic lights, you may find that you do not need such a long distance to stop. In such cases, the stop length is not as relevant.

But stopping distance, braking distance and inattention distance should remind us of everything that takes time with an emergency brake, and how far you can drive in this time. And thus, how long the stopping distance is actually needed.

Braking distance and speed

If you increase the speed, the braking distance is increased. And if you slow down, the braking distance decreases.

The braking distance therefore changes if the speed changes. However, the braking distance changes much more than the change in speed: a small change in speed can lead to a large change in braking distance. That's because the braking distance changes with the square of the change in speed.

Example:

A lorry travels at 60 km/h, and has a braking distance of 25 metres. The truck then increases its speed to 80 km/h. What then happens to the braking distance?

We know it is increasing. It increases with the square of the change in speed. But what is the speed change? You can find the speed change by dividing the new speed by the old speed. It becomes 80/60=1.33. The change in speed is therefore 1.33. To find the square of this, you multiply the number by itself. The square of the change in speed is therefore 1.33x1.33=1.77.

The braking distance changes with the square of the speed change, which is 1.77. This means that the braking distance increases by 1.77. The brake length of 25 m x 1.77=44 metres.

The increase from 60 km/h to 80 km/h gave 19 meters longer braking distance. It increased from 25 m to 44 m.

2. The driving

2.3 Weight of the truck (3/4)

Uphill

You may have experienced lying behind a truck on an uphill slope. It can be quite slow. As a lorry driver, you have to have a long view, so you notice uphill slopes well in advance. This is how you can organize your driving.

Have good speed before the hill

Before long slopes, you should make sure you have good speed with you, because it is difficult to pick up speed once you are on the ground. It is also important to utilize the engine's torque and be aware of which gear you are using.

Crab field

Long, heavily trafficked climbs in some cases have crab fields on the far right of the roadway. These are intended for vehicles that are unable to maintain the same speed as other road users. If you sleep here, you avoid creating a queue.

Interaction

Your challenges become easier if other traffic interacts. But it is not certain that they think about the fact that you have extra challenges on the ground, so it is not something you can count on when planning.

It is an advantage if you do not have to stop before entering this road. A lorry stationary on an uphill hill takes a very long time to get out onto the road.

Torque

The force with which the shafts are rotated. Measured in Newton meters (Nm).

Torque is a characteristic of the car, just like horsepower. But as a rule, we talk about torque as the power a wheel has in a given situation, and how this power can be best utilised. RPM affects the torque in a car, and the correct RPM provides effective acceleration.

Downhill slopes

On downhill slopes, make sure that the speed is not too high. Slow down before the hill, so you don't have to brake as much on the hill.

If the service brake is used too much, the brake discs can glaze over and lose the braking effect. They can also get hot and start to burn.

Low gear and auxiliary brakes can relieve the service brake.

Glazing

Also called fading. Glazing are smooth brake pads.

Brakes work due to friction: the brake pad is pressed against the brake disc on the wheel, and the wheel is unable to spin any more. Then the car stops. If the brake pad is glazed, i.e. smooth, it will not slow down as well.

Weak braking over a long period of time can lead to glazing. But it can also cause a lot of braking over a short period of time. Controlled sudden braking can prevent glazing.

2. The driving

2.3 Weight of the truck (4/4)

Slippery road

In Norway, the winter is long and cold, and creates major challenges on the roads. There are many accidents and descents with heavy vehicles in winter.

If you are going to drive a truck in Norway, you need to know what challenges you can face when the road is slippery.

Hills

If the ground is too slippery, you may risk not making it all the way up. In the worst case, you start to slide backwards. It is then difficult to maintain control of the vehicle, and it can create very dangerous situations.

The same can happen on downhill slopes. On a measured road, you can slide sideways if you don't have enough speed or enough grip.

Slippery roads often lead to downhill driving.

Chain

Before driving up or down a hill, you must consider the chain. The chain must be put on before the ground, not on the ground. Put on your reflective vest and position the truck as safely as possible.

The grip of the road

You need to know what kind of grip you have at all times, and there are many factors that mean that grip can change quickly. Local weather conditions can change when you drive to new places, and temperature changes and wind can make the road unpredictable. There may also be different practices for salting and spreading in different areas of the country. In addition, you must always be aware of dangers such as freezing rain and snow-covered ice.

You can test the road conditions by making a controlled brake at low speed, if it can be done safely, without danger to yourself or other road users.

Dosed

A metered road is sloped where the road bends, so that water runs off, and bends feel pleasant. If you drive too slowly through a dosed bend, you can slide sideways off the road.

2. The driving

2.4 Reversing, overturning and overtaking (1/3)

Backing up a truck

Reversing a truck is different from reversing a car. The truck is much larger, and it has larger blind spots.

Backing by truck must be planned. Think about where you place yourself before you start backing up. Find a place where you have a good view, and where the distance you have to back up will be as short as possible. If you see that you can avoid reversing, that is the very best.

Helper

According to the law, you have a duty to make sure that reversing can take place without danger. Sometimes the visibility is so bad that it becomes impossible to have an overview on your own, and then you have to use a helper. If there are many soft pedestrians in the area, this is extra important.

The helper must position himself so that he has an overview of blind spots and can communicate with the driver.

Helper

If you cannot maneuver the vehicle safely, the law requires you to use a helper.

The helper must be positioned where there is a good view of you and your blind spot. The location must be fairly far back, so you can see what is going on behind the vehicle. It is smart to stand on the left side, because it is the closest to the driver.

Placement of helper

2. The driving

2.4 Reversing, overturning and overtaking (2/3)

Overturning hazard

Heavy vehicles with a high center of gravity are particularly prone to overturning. Unfortunately, many HGV drivers do not realize how little it takes to roll over. You should be especially careful in the following situations:

  • Bends and roundabouts increase the risk of overturning, especially if the speed is high. Slow down and drive in a controlled manner.
  • Tracks and height differences on the road can lead to overturning, if the height difference between the right and left wheel pairs becomes too great. Be aware of where you place yourself, and pay attention to the difference in height.
  • A sudden evasive maneuver will often cause the truck to swerve away at high speed. This increases the risk of tipping over. If the truck also drives out on uneven ground, the risk of overturning can be even greater.
  • Good traction is good, but it does not reduce the risk of tipping over. Rollovers occur when the truck is traveling at high speed and "stumbles" in the road due to the friction of the tires against the road surface.

2. The driving

2.4 Reversing, overturning and overtaking (3/3)

To overtake

Overtaking is associated with risk regardless of the type of vehicle. Overtaking requires you to think through:

  • Is it really worth it? How much is there to save on overtaking? If it is only a few minutes, there is no point in taking the chance.
  • Distance: How long a distance do I have at my disposal?
  • Powers: How much power, or speed, do I have in the vehicle?
  • You drive a heavy car: And heavy cars take time to build up speed. This is unfortunate when overtaking.
  • You drive a long car: And long cars have to stay longer in the oncoming lane before they can go back into their own lane. This creates even more risk.

Has the driver of the wagon train made a good assessment here?

To be overtaken

If you drive a lorry and stick to the lorry's legal speed, you are often overtaken. You should be aware of this. You can make overtaking safer by keeping an eye on your mirrors and slowing down.

Flashing lights

Many HGV drivers use their flashing lights to warn the traffic behind that it is safe to drive past. This is both dangerous and prohibited. It is not good to know whether the signal means a clear path, a sudden obstacle or a lane change. The danger of misunderstandings is great - so such signals should be avoided.

3. The vehicle

3.0 Introduction

Chapter 3: The vehicle

When you are going to drive a truck, you need to know how the truck works. You must know the vehicle's construction and operation - that is, KKVM, as traffic teachers often call it. When you know how the truck works, you become better at operating the vehicle, and at understanding the vehicle's behavior.

In this chapter we will look at:

  • 3.1 The structure
  • 3.2 The management
  • 3.3 Wheels, tires and chain
  • 3.4 Engine and drive train
  • 3.5 Brake and brake circuit
  • 3.6 Light and the electrical system
  • 3.7 Daily control
  • 3.8 Control tasks

3. The vehicle

3.1 The structure (1/2)

What is a truck?

A lorry is a car with a permissible total weight of 3,500 kg or more, which is used to transport goods and cargo. If you have a certificate for class C, there are no weight restrictions on the vehicle. But as soon as you are towing a trailer heavier than 750 kg, you must have a certificate for class CE.

Platform car

A flatbed truck is a truck with a visible load bed. There is therefore no cupboard or building that hides the plane. As a rule, flatbed trucks have fold-down frames and a hatch at the back.

Tipper truck

A tipper also usually has a visible floor, but here it is not always possible to fold down the frames. The tipper can lift the plane with a hydraulic tip.

Cupboard car

A box truck is a truck with a fixed body. The superstructure functions as a cupboard. This type of truck is very common.

Chapel car

A chapel car only has a framework as a superstructure - i.e. no walls. On top of the framework is a tarpaulin, which will protect the load from weather and wind.

Tow truck

A tow truck is a shorter lorry, especially designed to tow a semi-trailer. A tow truck is also called a tow truck.

Vehicles, motor vehicles and wagon trains

Everything that has a vehicle license is a vehicle. Thus, both the car and the trailer are considered vehicles. A vehicle with an engine is called a motor vehicle.

When you connect several vehicles together, i.e. a motor vehicle and one or more trailers, it is called a truck train.

3. The vehicle

3.1 The structure (2/2)

Frame

An important part of the construction of large vehicles is the frame. This must withstand a lot of weight, but at the same time be flexible enough to withstand twists and loads. Modifications to the frame must be in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions, and approved in accordance with the vehicle regulations.

All main components such as engine, suspension, cab and superstructure are attached to the frame, in different ways.

A simplified truck frame with wheels.

Underpass obstacle

At the back of the frame there is an underpass barrier, which will prevent cars that collide in the truck from getting stuck under the frame.

The underpass barrier is on the frame.

There must be no more than 40 cm from the underpass obstacle backwards to the rear end of the plane or the rear end of the container. If the distance is too long, a car driving into the rear of the truck can be split in half, or have its roof peeled off.

This truck is banned from driving, as the distance is too long.

Axles

An axle is the rod to which a pair of wheels is attached.

The axles run across the frame front and rear. The wheels are attached to the axles.

Rear axle

The rear axle is the axle at the back of the truck.

Differential housing

In the picture you can see a rear axle, with wheels on each side. Between the wheels is the differential housing, which protects the differential.

The differential housing.

Differential

Here you see the differential. It is a kind of gear that allows the wheels on this axle to rotate at different speeds, but with the same force.

The differential.

Wheels at different speeds?

Why should the wheels have different speeds?

Imagine a car driving in a circle. The circle that the two outermost wheels must follow is much larger than the circle that the two innermost wheels must follow. But all the wheels must complete their circle in the same amount of time. Therefore, the outermost wheels must run faster than the innermost.

It is not so common to drive around in a circle. But the same principle applies when cornering: the wheels in the outer corner must go faster than the wheels in the inner corner. The differential ensures that this is possible.

Drive shaft and intermediate shaft

Rear axle is almost always a drive axle. A drive shaft is a shaft that is connected to the engine, so that the wheels on the shaft rotate. It is therefore the drive shaft that makes the vehicle move forward.

The drive shaft is connected to the engine through the intermediate shaft. It runs from the differential housing forward to the gearbox.

The intermediate axle and the rear axle are highlighted in red.

Here you see what it looks like on a modern Scania. Here is the intermediate shaft that goes into the differential housing.

Intermediate shaft and differential housing.

Suspension

Between the axles and the frame there is suspension. The suspensions ensure that the axles can move slightly in relation to the frame. Then the wheels, which are attached to the axles, can follow the unevenness in the road without the frame having to do the same. If the frame had to follow all the bumps, the ride would have become uncomfortable, and the entire structure would have worn out more quickly from all the rocking.

Leaf spring

Many trucks have leaf springs. The most common type of leaf spring is called a parabolic spring.

Parabolic spring

Parabolic springs have 1–5 arcs, i.e. blades, which lie close together. They are connected in the middle and at the ends. The suspension effect comes from the fact that the bows can be bent.

This type of suspension is quite soft, and provides good driving comfort. Many trucks have parabolic springs at the front and air suspension at the rear.

Parabolic springs on vehicles.

Air suspension

Another type of suspension that is also very common is air suspension. It doesn't dampen with a blade, but with air bellows.

In the picture below, you can see the frame, and the entire air suspension system at one rear axle. The rear axle is colored red. The rear axle is not attached directly to the frame - then there would be no room for movement. It is attached to a support strut.

The support rod sits on a support rod attachment, which in turn sits directly on the frame. The support rod comes out of the support rod attachment as a movable link. When the support rod moves up and down, the shaft also moves up and down.

Between the support strut and the frame there are air bellows, two on each support strut. When the support rod is moved up and down the axle, the air bellows dampen this movement.

Air suspension on rear axle.

Here you can see how the air suspensions look on a modern Scania. Here the support rod is clearly visible. You can also see the air bellows and the rear axle.

Air suspension.

The advantages of air suspension are:

  • The air suspensions are equipped with a height sensor, which can measure the distance to the ground. So, if the vehicle gets a heavy load at the rear, for example, the air suspensions on the rear axle can increase the height of the rear axle by taking in more air. In this way, the vehicle can be perfectly straight, regardless of the load.
  • One can also adjust the height of a vehicle manually. This can be useful in various situations, such as when unloading or connecting a trailer.
  • The system measures how much weight an axle carries and displays it on an instrument in the dashboard. This is useful information for drivers.

Air suspension

Shock absorber

As the suspensions are so resilient, they can act a bit like a spring. They can therefore make the car bounce a little, or dove up and down on uneven roads. This means that the car has less contact with the ground, and less grip. To counteract this, you have shock absorbers. It is especially vehicles with soft suspensions, such as parabolic springs, that need shock absorbers. But shock absorbers are also used together with air suspension.

Worn shock absorbers result in poorer road grip and driving comfort.

Each wheel has one shock absorber.

At the top and bottom of the shock absorber there is a ring called an eye. The upper eye is threaded onto the frame, and the lower eye is threaded onto the shaft.

Here you see shock absorbers and air bellows.

Liners

Another thing that should dampen movements is the liners.

The liners are usually made of rubber, and sit on almost all joints and fasteners in the car. They sit where two components are attached to each other, in nuts, around screws or other fixings. The liners prevent the components from rubbing against each other.

As they sit in the fasteners, they also seal small gaps in the construction. This prevents slack and vibrations.

If the car squeaks, the bushings may be darkened or damaged.

This liner sits on the truck's shock absorber.

Control and maintenance

Axles, suspensions and shock absorbers are components that withstand a lot, and these are checked by a professional when the vehicle is serviced. You should still follow when you drive and feel if the driving characteristics change. If so, there may be a fault in these components.

On leaf springs, you must check for breaks in the leaf springs, and lubricate as the instruction manual says. With air suspension, you must check for air leaks.

3. The vehicle

3.2 The control (1/2)

The steering

Now we will look a little at the steering of a truck.

Steering wheel

When you drive a car, you turn the steering wheel. The steering wheel is connected to a mechanism at the axle, which turns on the wheels when the steering wheel is turned.

Wheels that can turn are called steering wheels. The front axle always has steering wheels.

It is the front wheels that turn.

Some trucks have an extra set of steering wheels in addition to the front axle. They are usually on the rear axle of a bogie. In order for these wheels to follow the turn that the steering wheels on the front axle make, they turn in the opposite direction.

Friction controlled wheels

Wheels can be steering without being turned by the steering wheel: they can be friction-steering, or co-steering, as it is also called. Friction steered wheels are at the back, and turn only because they follow the vehicle's turn. When tires are pivotable, they will automatically follow the path of least resistance, i.e. the position that gives the least friction against the ground. And it is always the direction of the turn - because then the wheels can roll in the direction the truck is going.

Steering mechanism

The vast majority of cars are steered with a steering gear.

Steering screw

The steering column goes into the steering worm. The part of the steering column that is inside the steering worm is called the worm screw.

The self-tapping screw has threads, and sits inside a large ball nut. Inside the ball nut is a ball bearing, which ensures that the nut slides freely around the grub screw when the steering wheel is turned.

Ball nut.

There are tabs on the outside of the ball nut, which go into the tabs of the sector shaft.

When you turn the steering wheel, the auger rotates. Then the threads on the auger go up or down. So do the ball nut, sector shaft and pitman arm.

Ball bearings

When something has ball bearings it means it has balls inside. You can, for example, have balls inside a ball nut. The balls enable the nut to slide almost frictionlessly around what it is screwed around.

Ball bearings are also used in bicycle handlebars, moped handlebars and skateboard wheels.

Power steering

All modern vehicles have power steering. The power steering helps to change the direction of the wheels when you turn the steering wheel, so that you don't have to use your own power alone. It therefore makes the steering wheel easier to turn.

How does power steering work?

Right next to the steering screw there is an oil tank with hydraulic oil and a pump. The oil reservoir and the pump are connected to the steering worm with a hose. They are also connected to each other.

When you turn the steering wheel, oil is pumped into the steering worm. The oil has high pressure, and is pumped so that it provides thrust to the right or left - depending on which way you turn. The thrust therefore works together with the force from your hand on the steering wheel.

If there is an oil spill under the car, there may be a leak in the power steering.

Steering gear with pump and oil tank for power steering.

Turn when the truck is stationary!

Power steering makes it easy to fine-tune the truck, for example when parking with hatches, where you have to turn the wheels when the truck is stationary. But this wears out both the steering mechanism and tyres, so you should avoid it if you can. Although the steering wheel is easy to turn, there is a lot of force involved in turning.

3. The vehicle

3.2 The control (2/2)

Steering properties

Steering characteristics are how the vehicle is steered.

The steering characteristics are the result of many things at once, including:

  • lead
  • tire air pressure
  • number of axles: single axle or bogie?
  • placement of cargo

A lorry has some steering characteristics that you don't always think much about when driving normally on good roads. But on uneven roads, or in bad traffic, they can become more noticeable. In such situations, one can, for example, notice oversteer or understeer.

Oversteer and understeer

Oversteer means that the vehicle turns more than the steering angle should indicate.

Understeer means that the vehicle turns less than the steering angle would indicate.

It is not easy to say exactly what leads to understeering and what leads to oversteering. There are far too many different things that influence.

There are nevertheless special situations that are known to lead to oversteer or understeer, and it is useful to be aware of these.

Steering wheel

A steering turn is a given turn of the steering wheel. Therefore:

Full steering wheel travel means that the steering wheel is turned as far as it will go. A little steering is turning the steering wheel a little.

Steering wheel travel of 4 cm should be enough for the wheels to start turning.

Override

Rear-heavy car on dry roads

When the truck comes to a turn, the driver turns the steering wheel, so the truck follows the turn. But the load behind has such good speed straight ahead - and it will continue straight ahead. It will continue forward due to inertial forces. The load is like a force, which pushes the rear end out of the turn.

The load is in the back of the truck, and constitutes the vehicle's center of gravity. The front therefore loses some weight, and thus some traction. In addition to that, the front wheels are in a turn position. This together means that the front end joins the rotation created by the rear end.

Inertia forces

When a car turns sharply, loose objects inside the car fly straight ahead. They do not follow the turn to the car. It is because of the objects' inertial forces. They are slow - it takes time before they join the car on the bend.

When you let off the gas, it takes time for the car to slow down - this is also due to the forces of inertia.

Undermanagement

Slippery road

Slippery driving will usually always lead to understeer. Regardless of whether the car is rear- or front-heavy.

On slippery roads, cars can slide out of a bend. That's because the tires don't get enough grip on the road - so it slides off. If the car slides straight ahead in such a situation, you can call it understeer.

Understeer on slippery roads.

Low air pressure in front wheel

Too low air pressure in the front wheels can cause understeering. Wheels with little air have a larger surface area against their surface, and hold better. Then more force is needed to turn.

Tires with little air have a large surface area against the ground.

Understeer with a heavy car

Many people think that a heavy car will always create oversteer, because the steering wheels at the front have good traction. But a heavily loaded car with the center of gravity at the front of the loading platform will quickly understeer.

When the car comes to the bend and is about to turn, the load is well on its way forward. It will continue forward, just like in the previous example, where the truck was rear-heavy. The difference is the center of gravity: now the center of gravity is further forward on the truck. The car will therefore not rotate in the same way. Both because the rear of the car does not have the same forces, and because the steering front wheels have good grip.

What is happening now, and which leads to understeer, is that the car that wants to turn has to fight against the forces of the load, which wants to go straight ahead. This reduces the swing.

The center of gravity is at the front of the car. Thus, the rear end will not push the truck into rotation.

Film about oversteer and understeer

Bogie lift

Lifting the axle in a bogie can also affect the steering characteristics. The main rule is that the car is understeered if you lift an axle that is in front of the drive axle, and oversteer if you lift one that is behind the drive axle.

Override

The most common bogie has a drive axle at the front, and a running axle at the back. When you lift the running shaft, you may experience oversteer. The rear axle that remains on the ground becomes like the middle of a dump truck, and the axle that is lifted up at the back increases the weight at the back of the truck. Then the front axle is lifted up a little. And then there will be less friction between the road and the steering wheel, and thus the risk of oversteer.

Undermanagement

Many tractors have a bogie with a running axle at the front, i.e. a so-called pusher axle. Then you get the opposite effect. You get more weight at the front of the front axle, instead of it being lifted up. This results in more friction on the steering wheels, and the risk of understeering.

Differential lock

The differential is located on the drive shaft. As mentioned earlier, it allows wheels on the same axle to spin at different speeds, which is useful in a turn. The differential can be unscrewed, with the differential lock.

Here is the differential housing on a modern truck.

Why turn off the differential?

If the road is slippery, one may experience that one of the wheels on the drive axle has traction, and the other does not. The differential then means that the wheel with road grip stands completely still, while the wheel without road grip spins. The car is going nowhere. Then you have to lock the differential. This is done with a differential lock, which is operated from the cab.

The differential lock means that the wheels on the drive shaft are locked to each other, and thus must have the same speed. Then the wheel that has traction can force the wheel without traction forward.

It does not look exactly the same in all cars, but as a rule there is a switch in the cab.

Switch to turn the differential lock on and off.

Display

New trucks also have a display where you can see an overview of the axles on the truck, and whether the differential is locked or not. A cross in the middle of the axle means that the differential is locked - that is, that the differential lock is on. A rounding in the middle of the axle means that the differential is on, and the differential lock is therefore off.

Overview image on the display in the car. The rounding on the rear axle shows that the differential is not locked. The differential lock is therefore turned off.

Careful use of the differential lock

Care must be taken when locking the differential. Forcing the wheels on the drive shaft to have the same speed can damage the entire drive train. On slippery roads, it can also cause the truck to skid if both drive wheels lose grip. The differential should lock when the car is stationary, and it should open again when you start driving.

You should never lock the differential if your wheel is already spinning, for example if you are standing and accelerating on a smooth uphill.

You should never lock the differential if you know you have to turn. It is not good for the car to turn without a differential.

It is best for the car to have flexible rear wheels, so you must always be careful with the differential lock.

Drive shaft

Shaft with wheels that are rotated by the motor. It is the drive shaft that makes the vehicle move forward. Wheels that do not have a drive spin freely.

Control and maintenance of the steering

Daily control

  • Before driving, you should be aware of whether there is liquid on the ground under the car. This could be a leak in the power steering or other hydraulics.
  • When you start the car, pay attention to how the steering wheel behaves: you must notice that the power steering turns on when the engine starts. You notice this by the fact that the steering wheel becomes easier to turn.

Periodic control

  • Read in the instruction manual how to check the oil in the power steering, and include this in your routines for periodic checks.
  • Check the steering worm. Check that the hoses that go into the steering worm are tight and that nothing looks strange or crooked. Also look for slack. The steering screw can be checked by opening the grill.
  • If the power steering is broken, you notice it straight away. But you can check if it works as it should: carefully turn the steering wheel with the engine off. Then turn on the engine. The steering wheel should become easier to turn immediately.
  • You can check the dead movement of the steering wheel while driving at a place where you can turn exactly as you want: drive straight ahead, and then turn the steering wheel as far as it will go, in both directions. Pay attention to the driving - it should be smooth and without noise.
  • Another idle test can be done when the car is stationary and the engine is off. Turn the steering wheel, back and forth, with small movements. Feel that the wheels are moving even if the steering wheel movement is small. If it is possible to rock the steering wheel without the wheels moving, it is deadlock. You should not have more than 2-4 cm dead space.
  • You should also check the directional stability. Drive straight ahead and let go of the steering wheel carefully. The truck should not pull to any side when you let go of the steering wheel. If you let go of the steering wheel in a turn, the steering wheel should straighten.

3. The vehicle

3.3 Wheels, tires and chain (1/5)

The wheels of the truck

The wheels of a lorry are exposed to great stress. They must be able to carry vehicles and loads on various types of ground. The great forces that are at play during braking, acceleration and driving wear on the tyres, and place strict demands on quality.

Now we will look at:

  • Tire marking
  • Air pressure
  • Wheel bearing
  • Pattern depth
  • Studded tires
  • Chain

Tire marking

All tires must have a tire marking that describes the endurance, size and area of ​​use for the tyre.

What is the width and height of the tire?

An important part of the marking is the one that tells about the size of the tyre. It is then important that you know how to measure the height and width of a tyre:

The width of the tire is the width of the rubber, when the tire is seen from the front. The height of the tire is the height from the ground up to where the rim starts. Rim diameter is the diameter of the rim itself, without the rubber around it.

Width, height and profile ratio

295/80 tells about the size of the tyre. 295 is the width of the tire in millimeters. 80 is something called a profile ratio. This is the tire's height in relation to its width, expressed as a percentage. In this case, the height is 80 percent of the specified width.

Radial tires, diagonal tires and rim diameter

R stands for radial tyre. This says something about how the cord layers in the tire are located. The cord layers are the material the tire is made of, and which hides under the rubber. In a radial tyre, the long side of the cord layers is in the same direction as the wheel turns. This is the most common tire type.

22.5 is the diameter of the rim, given in inches.

M+S

M+S is a type of tire. M+S stands for mud and snow, and these are therefore winter tyres. On this tyre, it is extra clear, as it says winter.

Load Index and speed index

143/141 J says something about load and speed. 143 and 141 are both so-called LI values. LI stands for Load Index. The vehicle license states the minimum requirement for LI on the vehicle's tyres. The first number, here 143, applies if the tire is used as a single wheel. The second number, 141, is if the tire is part of twin wheels.

You can check how heavy a vehicle you can drive with tires that have an LI of 143 or 141 in a Load-Index table.

J shows the maximum speed of the tyre. J is a speed index, which means 100 km/h.

3-peak

Another marking that can be found on tires is the 3 peak mountain snowflake symbol. This means that the tire is a certified winter tyre. Vehicles with a permissible total weight over 3500 kg must have 3 peak mountain snowflakes on the drive axles and front steering axles. On the other axles, you can use tires marked 3 peak mountain snowflake, or Mud and Snow.

3 peak tires are often abbreviated to 3PMSF or 3PMS.

The carriage card

In point 12 of the vehicle license there is information on what type of tires the vehicle must have. The vehicle license in the picture belongs to a vehicle that must have a minimum LI 158 on the front axle, 150 on the next axle and 150 on the last axle. The minimum speed of the tires is K, which is 110 km/h.

We can also see what the standard tires are for the different axles: axle 1 must have tires with a width of 315 mm, and the height must be 80 percent of that - i.e. 252 mm. The tire must be a radial tyre, with a rim of 22.5 inches in diameter.

The letters S and T stand for single wheel and twin wheel.

Tables – Load index and speed index

Load index refers to a given capacity, stated in kilograms. You can see what the different LI can tolerate here. You can see the speed index here.

Diameter

Diameter is the longest path over a curve:

Twin wheels

Two wheels right next to each other. Axle with twin assembly thus has 4 wheels in total.

Load index

Table of Load Index and endurance in kilograms.

Speed ​​index

Table of speeds different speed indices stand for. Speed ​​indices are used on tire markings.

Air pressure

Air pressure is also important. In order to achieve optimal traction, the tires must have the air pressure they are intended to have.

In the vehicle's instruction manual, you can see what the air pressure in the tires should be. Air pressure is given in bar, psi, kg/cm2 or kPa.

It has been decided internationally that one should switch to only using kPa. But this takes time, and until further notice you will come across several of these designations.

How do you check if the tires have the correct air pressure?

You can use an air pump both to fill with air and to check air pressure. When you put the air pump on the valve on the tyre, the pressure gauge on the pump will react immediately, and the arrow on the gauge shows what the pressure is. You should check the air pressure every 14 days.

Many new vehicles have automatic tire pressure monitoring that alerts you if something is wrong with the air pressure. You will be notified of errors on the screen or warning lights in the cab.

Another thing you should check regularly, which can also reveal incorrect air pressure, is the wear on the tyres. Tires with the wrong air pressure wear faster, and they wear unevenly. When the tire wears unevenly, spots and patterns may appear in certain places. How worn the tire is can tell you something about what is wrong with the air pressure.

What does the wear pattern mean?

  • Wear in the center of the tire's tread indicates excessive air pressure in the tire.
  • Wear on both sides of the tire indicates insufficient air pressure.
  • Punctual wear indicates a fault in the shock absorbers or an imbalance in the tires and rims.
  • Wear on one side of the tire indicates incorrect wheel alignment.
  • Wear in a large, limited area, a bit like a spot, indicates that the wheel is blocking too much when braking.

The tread of the tyre

The part of the tire's surface that is in direct contact with the road. When everything is in order with the tire, the surface of the tread wears evenly.

Tire wear

Tire wear

Air pressure

Incorrect air pressure wears out the tires. Tires have a maximum service life if they have the correct pressure. Low air pressure will also increase fuel costs, because rolling resistance will be greater.

If the tires are 20 percent too high pressure, the service life will be 90 percent of the normal service life. If the tires are 20 under-inflated, they have 85 percent of their normal lifespan. If the pressure is 60 percent too low, the service life will be only 25 percent of the normal service life.

Speed

High speed wears on the tires.

It varies how much a tire can withstand, but a tire that has a maximum service life at a speed of 55 km/h only has 60 percent of this service life if it is driven at 100 km/h.

Of course, you should not drive at 55 km/h all the time - this is only an example, to show the importance of speed.

3. The vehicle

3.3 Wheels, tires and chain (2/5)

Wheel bearing

Where the wheel is attached to the axle is a wheel bearing.

One of the tasks of the wheel bearing is to reduce the friction that occurs between the wheel and the axle when the wheel spins. You don't want friction - it creates resistance and heat.

Slack

If there is slack in the wheel bearing, or between the wheel bearing and the axle, the wheel bearing cannot remove the friction. Quite the contrary, slack like this can lead to vibrations and overheating - and that can develop into a fire. Truck fires often start in broken wheel bearings.

To avoid this, regular checks must be carried out.

3. The vehicle

3.3 Wheels, tires and chain (3/5)

The construction of the tire

The tire is made up of cord layers and rubber. The cord layers are woven pieces of steel strip or fibre, and this is what gives the tire its hold.

Radial tires

There are many ways to lay the chord layers. Most lorries run tires where the cord layers are mainly on the tyre's runway, so-called radial tyres. The cord layers lie with the long side along the runway, and do not cover the entire width of the tire. Therefore, it is softer on the side, and has better grip in turns.

Tires where the cord layers run along the width of the tire are called diagonal tires.

Radial tires.

Low profile tires

Low-profile tires are a type of radial tire.

Profile

The tire's profile is the height as a percentage of the width. A 100-profile tire is as tall as it is wide, and on a 55-profile tire the height is 55 percent of the width. That something has a low profile means that it is much wider than it is tall. A wheel with a low-profile tire will therefore appear low and wide.

The advantages of low-profile tires are that they weigh less and provide lower rolling resistance. Many heavy vehicles have low-profile tires.

The height and width of the deck

3. The vehicle

3.3 Wheels, tires and chain (4/5)

Seasons

There are many different types of tyres, and many rules relating to the use of tyres. You must know the rules for studded tyres, winter tyres, chains and requirements for tread depth.

Northern Norway

  • From and including 15 November to 31 March, you must have winter tyres. On drive axles and front steering axles you must have tires marked with 3 peak mountain snowflake. On the other axles, you can use tires marked 3 peak mountain snowflake or Mud and Snow.
  • From and including 16 October to 30 April, you must drive with tires that have a tread depth of at least 5 mm, and have a chain in the car. During this same period, studded tires are legal.

Rules for Northern Norway

The rest of Norway

  • From and including 15 November to 31 March, you must have winter tyres. On drive axles and front steering axles you must have tires marked with 3 peak mountain snowflake. On the other axles, you can use tires marked 3 peak mountain snowflake, or Mud and Snow.
  • From 1 November up to and including the first Monday after the 2nd Easter Sunday, you must wear a chain in the car.
  • From 1 November up to and including the first Sunday after the 2nd Easter Sunday, you must have a pattern depth of at least 5 mm.

Rules for the rest of Norway

Pattern depth

The pattern depth is how deep the grooves in the tire pattern are. This has a lot to say about road grip. Too little tread depth can lead to poor road grip, increased risk of aquaplaning and increased braking distance. Therefore, it is not safe to drive with tread depth that is too low.

Check pattern depth

You can easily check the pattern depth by looking at the tires. If the tire is very worn, it is easy to see, but if not, a depth gauge is useful. A depth gauge is a small ruler that you insert into the pattern groove. The requirements for pattern depth are:

  • Summer tires must have a tread depth of at least 1.6 mm.
  • There is a requirement of 5 mm tread depth 16 October–30. April in Northern Norway, and 1 November–first Sunday after 2 Easter Sunday in the rest of Norway.

Depth gauge.

Wear warning

Many tires have so-called wear warnings. Wear indicators are numbers engraved in the rubber, for example 100, 60 and 40. To check the wear, you must see what the highest visible number is. This number shows how many percent of the original pattern depth remains. For example: if 60 is the highest number visible, 60 percent of the pattern depth remains.

Wear warning. The 100% figure has been worn away. But 80, 60 and 40 remain. This means that at least 80% of the tread depth remains.

Can the tire be used?

The quality of a tire is not only dependent on air pressure, tread depth and surface wear. You must always make an overall assessment of the tire before using it.

Is the tire safe and suitable for your truck?

Hydroplaning

Hydroplaning occurs when so much water gets between the tire and the road that the tire does not make contact with the road. The tire will float on the water and you will lose control of the vehicle.

The likelihood of aquaplaning increases with worn tire patterns and at higher speeds.

Studded tires

Studded tires are very harmful to the environment, and it is only permitted to use studded tires during the studded tire period.

All your wheels do not have to have studded tires, but wheels on the same axle must be the same. That is, if you have studded tires on the left rear wheel, you must also have studded tires on the right rear wheel. If you have twin wheels, it will hold with a studded tire on one of the twin wheels, i.e. a total of two studded tires on one axle.

Winter tires both with and without studs.

The studded tire period

  • Nordland and Troms and Finnmark: from and including 16 October to and including 30 April.
  • The rest of the country: from and including 1 November to and including the first Sunday after the 2nd Easter Sunday.

You can also have studded tires outside the studded tire period, if this is necessary for safe driving.

Chain

During the period when chains are required in the car, you must bring at least 3 chains: one of them must be adapted to the front wheel, and two must be adapted to the drive wheel. But when you are going to put on a chain, you choose which ones to use. There are no rules about how many should be used, or where they should be used. But you MUST ensure good traction. When it's winter, chains are often the only thing that can get you up a steep hill.

You must have a chain in the car also outside the chaining period, if you can expect smooth roads.

Put on chain

Putting on a chain can be knotty and difficult - and it often has to be done in cold and bad weather. But chains are very important, and dropping chains can be both expensive and dangerous.

If you are going to put on a chain to get up or down a hill, it is important that you put it on before the hill. It is too late if you have started driving and are standing in the middle of the hill - then the whole truck can slide away. This can lead to closed roads, damaged cargo and danger to yourself and others.

Before long slopes, there is often a chain area, where you can attach a chain without being in the way of traffic.

Think security

It is important to think about safety when putting on a chain. If you do not have a place to chain, and have to stop along the road, you must leave the parking lights and warning lights on. You must also wear a reflective vest.

It is also important to position yourself so that you do not get caught if the lorry starts to slide.

3. The vehicle

3.3 Wheels, tires and chain (5/5)

Put on chain

There are several different types of chain. Remember to practice with the type you will use.

Alternatives to regular chain

Automatic chain

Automatic chain, or one spot as they are called, is activated from the driver's seat with a switch. When activated, a small sprocket will be lowered, so that it comes into contact with the inside of the tire. The friction causes the sprocket to rotate and creates enough centrifugal force to fling the chains out and under the tire. This means that there is always a chain between the tire and the ground, and that the road grip is improved.

Automatic chains work at speeds of up to 50 km/h, and they are approved as chains.

Sand spreader

This is a small box located in front of each drive wheel, which is operated directly from the driver's seat. There is usually one button per spreader. Sand spreader can be convenient, but it also has disadvantages. If you forget to fill it up, it is of no use, nor if the sand is frozen.

Inspection and maintenance of wheels and chain

Look for tears, splits and other damage in the tires. Look for wear in the tyre's tread, and possibly see if the wear can tell you anything about what is wrong. Also check that the tires have the correct air pressure.

If the vehicle has twin wheels, the air pressure must be checked daily, on all four wheels. You can do this by hitting the wheels with a hammer and listening to the sound. All the wheels should sound exactly the same. If there is one wheel that sounds different, it probably has the wrong air pressure. When you have twin wheels, you must also check that there are no stones between the wheels in a pair of wheels.

If you have newly fitted tyres, the nuts must be re-tightened after approximately 50 km of driving. This is very important. See in the instruction book how much force you should apply to the wheel nut wrench when tightening.

You can detect an imbalance in the tires during normal driving. Then the car will make noises and abnormal vibrations.

The tread of the tyre

The part of the tire's surface that is in direct contact with the road. When everything is in order with the tire, the surface of the tread wears evenly.

Twin wheels

Two wheels right next to each other. Axle with twin assembly thus has 4 wheels in total.

3. The vehicle

3.4 Engine and drive (1/4)

The truck's engine

The vast majority of trucks have diesel engines. The engine is located under the cabin of the truck.

Four beats

Heavy vehicles usually have a four-stroke engine. It is called a four-stroke engine because the engine operates in four stages.

A diesel engine.

Cylinder

These four steps take place inside the cylinders, and all cylinders carry out the same four strokes - but at different times. The strokes are intake stroke, compression stroke, working stroke and exhaust stroke.

The strokes cause the piston in the cylinder to move up and down. They thus create mechanical force.

Step 1: Intake stroke

The piston goes down into the cylinder. Air is drawn in from an open valve at the top.

Step 2: Compression rate

The valve that sucked the air in is closed.

The piston goes up. And as the air cannot escape, it is compressed. When air is compressed very much, it becomes compressed air. And air at very high pressure becomes very hot. The compressed air in the piston becomes over 700°c.

Finally in stage 2, diesel enters the cylinder. The diesel is injected from a nozzle at the top of the cylinder.

Step 3: Work rate

The temperature in the compressed air is so high that the diesel starts to burn. This increases the pressure in the cylinder, and the piston is pushed down.

Step 4: Exhalation rate

Compressed air is now burned inside the cylinder. This is exhaust.

Then the piston moves up, forcing the exhaust out of a valve. The exhaust is released from the vehicle.

How do the pistons create power?

The pistons are lined up inside the engine. The pistons are connected by all being attached to the same crankshaft, which is rotated by the pistons.

Crankshaft.

All the pistons work in the four strokes, but not at the same time. At any given time, one of the pistons is pushed down by the diesel ignition, which thus rotates the crankshaft so that the other pistons are also pushed up or down. The pistons that are pushed up will either be in stroke 2 and compress air, or be in stroke 4 and push out exhaust. The pistons that are pushed down are either in stroke 3 with the ignition, or in stroke 1 with the air intake.

1. diesel ignition. 2. the exhaust is pushed out. 3. air is compressed. 4. new air is taken in.

The diesel creates mechanical power

It is the ignition, i.e. the diesel, which causes the piston to be pressed down, and helps the other pistons to move. It is therefore the diesel that turns into mechanical power, and thus drives the crankshaft around.

Why is the car moving forward?

The pistons thus cause the crankshaft to rotate. The drive shaft causes the intermediate shaft to rotate, which in turn causes the drive shaft to rotate. When the drive shaft rotates, the wheels rotate. This is how the vehicle moves forward.

The intermediate axle connects the machinery at the front with the differential and axle at the rear. It is very powerful.

The drivetrain

Here is a video of parts of the drivetrain. The pistons rotate the intermediate shaft, and the intermediate shaft's rotation is transmitted to the rear drive shaft. When this rotates, the wheels rotate.

3. The vehicle

3.4 Engine and drive (2/4)

Diesel

The vast majority of trucks run on diesel. Diesel is made from crude oil.

Diesel and cold

When diesel gets sufficiently cold, wax crystals form in the diesel. The wax crystals can clog the fuel system, so no diesel gets to the pistons. Then the car stops. There are many measures to prevent this from happening. The diesel manufacturers add substances that prevent the wax from clumping and can pass through. Some trucks have electrically heated diesel filters, which prevent the wax clumps from forming at all.

In addition, diesel is made that withstands the cold better, so-called winter diesel. It contains less wax than that used in the summer, which is called summer diesel. Winter diesel and summer diesel have different fog points and blocking points.

  • The cloud point of the diesel is the temperature that makes the diesel cloudy and cloudy, because the wax has started to separate from the diesel. Foggy diesel can be used.
  • The blocking point is the temperature at which the wax clumps become so large that they can block a diesel system. Then you can't use the diesel. In theory, you can use the diesel if it is hotter than the stated blocking point.

Summer diesel has a blocking point of -12°. There are two types of winter diesel: one that can withstand -24°, for areas with mild winters, and one that can withstand -32°, for areas with cold winters. It is not dangerous to mix summer diesel and winter diesel, but winter diesel with summer diesel in it naturally cannot withstand as much cold as pure winter diesel.

There is also one that can withstand even more, which is called light diesel. It can be used in temperatures down to -50°.

Winter diesel all year round?

You can use winter diesel all year round. But as the winter diesel has added substances that make it withstand the cold better, it costs more than the summer diesel. Most people prefer to use summer diesel in the summer months.

Diesel tank

Diesel system

Here we will look at how the cylinders get diesel from the diesel tank.

It is the combustion of fuel in the cylinders that makes the car move forward. In order for the engine to stay within the strict emission requirements, the engine must be efficient, and make as much power with as little fuel as possible. To achieve this, the nozzles must inject the right amount of fuel, at exactly the right time.

The fuel system is mainly pumps, valves and pipes which are attached to the engine itself. On all modern trucks, the system is electronically controlled.

Here is a Scania engine. Feed pump and diesel filter are marked purple.

Feed pump, diesel filter and injection pump

On the engine, there is a feed pump that sucks in diesel from the diesel tank. The feed pump sends the diesel through a filter, which removes condensation water from the diesel. The diesel then goes up to an injection pump. The injection pump is an intelligent high-pressure pump that supplies diesel to the cylinders depending on how hard the gas pedal is depressed.

Feed pump at the bottom right, and diesel filter at the top.

Bleed the diesel system

If you run the tank empty, the feed pump sucks air in between the tank and the nozzles. You should fill so often that you avoid this. But if there is air in the system, it must be removed. This is called bleeding the diesel system. Some trucks have automatic ventilation - and then you don't have to do it yourself.

Approach

If your truck has a fuel system that needs to be bled, you must do this every time the tank runs out. You must see exactly how to bleed the diesel system on your truck in the instruction manual - but a general procedure is:

  • Lift the cabin so the engine is accessible. Look in the instruction book and find out where the air screw and hand pump are. The air screw is usually on the diesel filter, and the hand pump is a button or a bellows that sits on the feed pump. In some trucks, the injection pump must also be vented, and then this also has a venting screw. This is described in the instruction manual.
  • Turn on the ignition.
  • Open the air screw on the diesel filter.
  • Use the pump. When the pump is operated, diesel should come out of the air screw. Pump until clean diesel comes out, without foam and air bubbles.
  • Then try to start the engine.
  • If it does not start, bleed the injection pump, if your truck has an injection pump that needs to be bled. If it doesn't have it, try to bleed with the same bleed screw again.
  • In the truck's owner's manual, you can see if your fuel system needs to be bled, and where the bleed valves are located on the engine.

    Air screw on the diesel filter.

    Hand pump on the feed pump.

    Drain diesel tank

    Condensation may form in the fuel tank. The condensate enters the system with the diesel, and can cause damage. Water in the injection pump and frozen condensate can lead to a shutdown, because the engine does not get diesel. The water must be drained away.

    To drain the fuel system, open a valve at the bottom of the tank. The water is heavier than the diesel, so the water is at the bottom of the tank. Therefore, this is what flows out when the valve is opened. It is smart to drain just before filling, i.e. when the tank is not completely full.

    Water in the diesel system can also lead to something called diesel animals.

    Diesel animal

    Diesel sludge is a type of sludge that develops inside the diesel tank. The sludge consists of microbes such as fungi, yeasts and bacteria, which have entered and eat the diesel oil. The diesel animals continue with the diesel into the system, and can clog the diesel filters.

    The smallest microbes also get through the filters, and can clog the nozzles in the engine cylinders.

    The diesel animals get good growth conditions from condensed water, and depend on it to grow into sludge. If you remove the condensation by draining the tank, you make it much more difficult for the diesel animals.

    Diesel filter.

    3. The vehicle

    3.4 Engine and drive (3/4)

    Control of exhaust

    Large parts of the engine are a closed system, which you cannot control with visual inspection. But you can notice faults in the engine by feeling how it behaves, sounds or by looking at what comes out of it - the exhaust.

    There should be no smoke in the exhaust when the engine is at operating temperature. If it is, the color of the smoke can say something about what is wrong:

    • White smoke: often caused by water in the exhaust. If the engine is not warm, it is normal to see white smoke or steam in the exhaust.
    • Blue smoke: if there is oil in the exhaust, it can turn blue. Oil in the exhaust can come from worn piston rings, or general wear and tear on the engine.
    • Black smoke: there can be many causes of black smoke. It could be that the pistons get too much diesel at a time, or that the pistons are unable to burn up all the diesel. There could also be a fault in something called the turbocharger, or a clogged air filter.

    Visual control

    Visual control means that you control something by looking at it.

    For example, car lights can be checked visually by turning on the car, getting out, and seeing if they light up.

    Piston ring

    The piston rings go around the pistons. They must ensure that there is a complete seal between the cylinder and the piston.

    Engine oil

    You must check the engine oil level every single day before driving. The oil must also be changed regularly - the oil loses important properties over time. Motor oil has many important tasks:

    • Lubrication - lubrication ensures less wear on the engine's parts.
    • Cooling – the oil helps keep the temperature in the engine down.
    • Cleanse – the oil can remove dirt and grime.
    • Tight - in areas where it should be tight, for example in the cylinders, the oil can seal small gaps.
    • Dampening – the oil can dampen collisions between components inside the engine.

    Different types of oil

    In the truck's instruction booklet you can see what kind of oil your truck should use. Motor oil is also available in several thickness grades. The colder it is, the thinner the oil you should use.

    3. The vehicle

    3.4 Engine and drive (4/4)

    Gives

    Trucks have many more gears than cars. Trucks have varying weights depending on what they are loaded with, and they are generally very heavy. In order for them to move forward efficiently, it is important that the forces in the drive wheels can be adapted to any situation. It is the gearing that adapts the forces.

    The gearbox changes rotation speed

    In the gearbox, there are gears that determine how much rotation is to be transferred from the crankshaft to the intermediate shaft. This is controlled from the cab, with the gear lever.

    Operation of the gear

    There are many different transmission systems, and you must always familiarize yourself with the transmission system of the car you will be driving. Here we will look at how different types of gears are operated from the driver's seat.

    Range

    The truck has more gears than the car, often up to 30. These gears are often divided into "floors". This is called range. The floors work as follows:

    When you are in 6th gear and going up to 7th gear, press a button on the gear lever. The button makes 1.–6. gears become 7-12. gives. Then you can take the gear lever in what used to be 1st gear, and which is now 7th gear. You may recognize this principle from bicycles, which often have 21 gears spread over 3 floors.

    In the picture below, you see an example of a gear lever in a truck with a range function. It only has 3 normal forward gears per floor. When you are in 3rd gear, you press the range button, and can shift back into 1st gear, which has now become 4th gear.

    C stands for crawl, and is a crab gear. This gear is intended for driving at very low speeds. The truck also has two reverse gears, one high and one low.

    Range.

    Split

    Another system that gives the truck more gears is the split system.

    The split system divides each gear into a high and a low gear. You can, for example, have the car in 5th gear high split, or 6th gear low split. It is also called half gear. High and low gear is controlled by a switch.

    Many trucks have both a split and a range.

    The order

    High and low gears come one after the other - so they are not divided into two floors like the range system is. The order is therefore:

    • low 1.
    • high 1.
    • low 2.
    • high 2.
    • low 3.
    • high 3. And so on…

    Here there is both split and range.

    Electronic gear change

    Engine, intermediate shaft and gear work together so that the wheels rotate with the desired force for any situation. The gears adapt the wheels' torque and ability to accelerate. For example, many trucks have crab gears, which provide a lot of power at low speeds.

    The power of the lorry's propulsion is very important for the work the lorries have to do - so the lorry manufacturers come up with new technology in this area all the time. Most trucks are now supplied with an electronic gear change, which adjusts the power during driving according to what is economical and efficient. RPM, speed and load are monitored, and the electronic gearshift changes gears without you having to do anything.

    Volvo I-shift gearbox

    3. The vehicle

    3.5 Brake and brake circuit (1/10)

    Brakes

    Many of the braking mechanisms in a truck are inaccessible to a HGV driver - and you are not expected to repair or check the entire brake system.

    But it is important that you know how the brakes work. Then you will be better able to recognize faults or unusual things, and you will be more confident in handling the brakes. Functioning brakes are very important for road safety - and if the brakes are handled incorrectly, it can be very dangerous.

    Brake circuit

    A brake circuit is the entire braking mechanism, right from the pedal, handbrake or other trigger, and out to the wheels that are braked down.

    Multiple brake circuits

    The service brake, which is also called the foot brake, is the brake you use by pressing your foot on the pedal. The service brake consists of two brake circuits. The two brake circuits are independent of each other - so if one of the circuits fails, the other can slow down the vehicle alone. This provides increased security. The vehicle regulations require that all trucks have a two-circuit service brake.

    Most trucks have three circuits that brake:

    • a circuit for front axle
    • a circuit for rear axle
    • a circuit for parking brake

    Braking power

    If you roll a ball across a table, you can slow it down or stop it completely by touching it. Then you stop the ball directly with your own power.

    Alien power

    You cannot stop a truck with your own power. It stops when you press down on the pedal - but the pedal is only a valve that sets other forces in motion. These forces are created in the braking system. That is why it is said that the truck has a braking system that uses external force to stop the vehicle.

    The ball is stopped by its own power.

    Brake circuit

    In the brake system, there are hoses in which the compressed air moves.

    Compressed air is compressed air. Exactly how compressed it is, i.e. how high the pressure is, is measured in the measurement units bar or kPa. You can recognize these measuring units from the lorry's tyres, which also contain compressed air.

    The compressed air passes through thick hoses that are attached to the frame.

    3. The vehicle

    3.5 Brake and brake circuit (2/10)

    Common food section

    We will first look at the part of the brake circuit called the common feed part. It is common to all three circuits: front brake, rear brake and parking brake. Common supply part receives compressed air from the compressor, and feeds it to the circuits.

    Here, the common feeder part is colored.

    We start at the front of the car, where the air for the compressed air system enters.

    Air filter: Cleans the air that is sucked in.

    Compressor: The compressor takes in the air and compresses it. The air then becomes compressed air.

    Air dryer: Between the compressor and the air dryer there is a coiled pipe. It is looped to give the compressed air a longer journey to the air dryer. Then the compressed air has time to cool down. In the air dryer, the water in the compressed air must be removed.

    Pressure regulator: The air inside these pipes must be under pressure - but it is important that there is not too little or too much pressure. This compressed air regulator ensures that the air has the right pressure: it can turn the compressor on and off, and thus choose when the air should be compressed more and when it should not.

    Safety valve: If the compressed air regulator stops working, the pressure in the brake system can become far too high. Then it can explode. The safety valve ensures that this does not happen: the valve releases air if it detects that the air pressure is too high. Some trucks have the safety valve on top of what is called the wet tank.

    One-way valve: The one-way valve is the entrance to the tank system, and this valve ensures that the compressed air only comes in, and not out, of the tanks.

    The wet tank: If the air dryer does not work, moisture will form in the wet tank. It can be emptied with a valve underneath. New trucks do not have a wet tank.

    Protection valve: The protection valve, or multi-circuit valve as it is also called, is connected to all the brake circuits. When the truck has normal pressure in the circuits, i.e. between 7 and 12 bar, all brake circuits share air. That is, they are not cut off from each other.

    The protection valve shuts off the circuits from each other when the pressure in one of the circuits drops to 6 bar. This ensures that a leak in one circuit does not empty the entire system of air.

    Compressed air tanks: Compressed air for use in the brake system is stored here.

    Feed part front axle

    From the compressed air tanks, the compressed air goes out to various brake circuits. We start with the front axle circuit.

    Feed part front axle.

    The first part after the compressed air tank is the front axle's own feed part. Here you will find pressure gauges, foot brake valve and pedal.

    Manometer: The manometer shows the air pressure inside the tube. The manometer is visible from the cab.

    Foot brake valve: Foot brake valve can close and release air. It is activated by the brake pedal.

    Feed part front axle.

    The foot brake valve

    The foot brake valve closes the brake circuit, so that the compressed air stops.

    When the brake pedal is depressed, the valve opens and the compressed air passes through, allowing it to move on to the brakes and activate them.

    In modern trucks, the air is not retained by the front brake valve, but by a valve right next to the brake. Then the brake pedal is used to send an electronic signal to the valve, that it should let air into the brake, and activate it.

    This is called an electronically controlled braking system.

    Steering part front axle

    On the other side of the foot brake valve, is the front axle's control part. It is this part that the air passes through when it has to activate the brakes, when you step on the brakes. The maneuvering part has a quick-release valve and a brake bell.

    Maneuver part front axle is marked in yellow.

    The brake bells: The brake bell is what activates and deactivates the brakes with compressed air. When the pedal is depressed, air enters the brake bell and the brake is activated. All wheels have brake bells.

    The quick-release valve: When you release the brake pedal to deactivate the brake, the air disappears from the brake bell. It is the quick-release valve that lets the air out of the brake bell, emptying it in 0.1 second.

    Steering part front axle

    3. The vehicle

    3.5 Brake and brake circuit (3/10)

    Rear axle

    The brake circuit for the rear axle works exactly the same as the brake circuit for the front axle. But it has some instruments that the front axle doesn't.

    Feed part rear axle

    In this picture you can see the air tanks and the feeder part for the rear axle. The feed part for the rear axle comes out of the air tank belonging to the rear axle. The feeder part goes forward in the car, and splits in two. One pipe goes to a pressure gauge, and the other goes to the foot brake valve. Just like the brake circuit for the front axle.

    Feed part rear axle.

    Maneuver part rear axle

    From the foot brake valve, the maneuvering part of the rear axle begins. It goes backwards in the car again, to something called ALB.

    ALB stands for Automatic Load-Dependent Brake Force Regulator. It is smart to have:

    The brakes in these braking circuits are very strong. If the car is empty and weighs little, they can almost be too strong. They become so strong that the car stops suddenly as soon as you press the pedal. ALB ensures that the braking force is adapted to the weight of the car. It does this by measuring the axle load on the rear axle.

    ALB is not required for cars with ABS brakes - but all Swedish-made cars have ALB.

    Quick-release valve: This is the same type of valve as the one on the brake circuit of the front axle. It must ensure that the compressed air comes out of the brake bell quickly.

    Maneuver part rear axle.

    ABS

    ABS brakes are brakes that slow down vehicles without the wheels being locked for the entire braking distance. That is to say: the brake is turned on and off many times during deceleration. This allows you to control the vehicle during deceleration.

    You cannot drive a vehicle with locked wheels.

    Foot brake valve and brake bell

    As mentioned – when the foot brake is stepped on, compressed air comes from the supply part, through the maneuvering part and out towards the brakes.

    The brake bell

    The compressed air enters a brake bell. The brake bell is on the brake mechanism on the wheel. All wheels have a brake calliper with service brake, and on the rear wheels the calliper brake also has a parking brake. It is such a watch that we are going to look at now.

    In the brake caliper, there is one chamber for the service brake and one for the parking brake. During normal driving, there is air in the parking brake, and no air in the service brake.

    Chamber for service brake on the left, and chamber for parking brake on the right.

    When you press the foot brake pedal, air enters the service brake chamber. The air pushes on the piston of the service brake, and a push-rod pushes the brake pad on the brake disc.

    This is what a brake bell looks like on a modern Scania. The brake bell is mounted on the caliper, which sits inside the center of the tire. Here we can also see the wires that make up the brake circuit.

    Service brake

    3. The vehicle

    3.5 Brake and brake circuit (4/10)

    Parking brake

    Now we have looked at the braking circuit for the front axle and rear axle. The third brake circuit is the parking brake, which we will look at now. It also consists of a feeder part and a maneuvering part.

    The service brake is applied with compressed air. The parking brake is different, because it disengages with compressed air. It is therefore on when there is no air in the brake bell or the circuit.

    Feed part parking brake

    One-way valve: when the air has to leave the tank, it must go through a one-way valve, which ensures that the air only goes out, and not in.

    Filling valve: the filling valve makes it possible to fill the circuit with air, for example in an emergency where the circuit is empty of air and the compressor is broken. It can also be used to take air from the circuit, for example to fill the tires with air.

    Shut-off valve: also called blocking valve. Must ensure that the parking brake does not disengage when you start the car, and the pressure builds up. The valve is accessible from the driver's seat, and the driver must open this valve to disengage the parking brake.

    Lever for P-brake: this is the lever that the driver uses inside the cab.

    Maneuver part parking brake

    The maneuvering part for the parking brake goes from the lever to the P brake and out to the brake bell on the rear wheel.

    Maneuver part parking brake in red.

    Brake bell parking brake

    As we saw on the previous page: during normal driving there is air in the parking brake, and no air in the service brake. The parking brake must have air to be off.

    Chamber for parking brake on the right.

    To apply the parking brake, the chamber must be emptied of air. This is what happens when you use the P-brake lever.

    Brake bell without any compressed air.

    The parking brake must therefore be on when the car and the brake bell are empty of air. It is the vehicle regulations that determine that the truck must have brakes that work without air. This is to ensure that the truck has brakes to use, even if the air system were to fail.

    Parking brake

    Alien power

    Now that we've looked at the brake circuits, we can get back to the alien force.

    As mentioned, a pneumatic mechanical brake system is based on external power. This means that you are not using your own power to brake.

    The foreign force that slows you down is the compressed air. All you have to do is open the valves, so the compressed air can get to the brakes. The pedal and the brake lever are such valves.

    When you open the valve with the pedal, compressed air enters and brakes.

    Overview of brake pressure

    In modern trucks, you can monitor the air pressure in the brake circuits on a display in the cab. In this picture you can see that the air pressure in brake circuits 1 and 2 is 11 bar, and that it is within the green area. The green area shows what is sufficient pressure in the brake circuit.

    The air pressure in the circuit for the parking brake is 8.5 bar, which is also sufficient pressure.

    This overview has the same function as a manometer.

    3. The vehicle

    3.5 Brake and brake circuit (5/10)

    How are the wheels braked?

    The aim of the braking system that we have now gone through is of course to slow down the wheels, so the truck loses speed. There are two common truck brakes:

    • Disc brake
    • Drum brake

    Both brake types brake the wheels using brake pads.

    The brake disc on a disc brake. Disc brakes are the most common type of brakes.

    Disc brake

    Most trucks have disc brakes. On a disc brake, the brake pads are pushed onto a disc mounted on the wheel.

    The brake disc sits between two brake pads, inside a caliper. The caliper presses the brake pads onto the brake disc, thereby slowing down the wheel.

    Drum brake

    The drum brake is not so common on new trucks in Norway, but it is often used on trailers. In the drum brake, the brake pads are pushed outwards onto a drum that is attached to the wheel.

    The drum has been removed, and the curved brake pads are clearly visible.

    The drum brake is much heavier than the disc brake. It is also more demanding to maintain – for example, it is much easier to change brake pads on a disc brake. And as the brake mechanism is inside a closed drum, it gets hot easily.

    3. The vehicle

    3.5 Brake and brake circuit (6/10)

    Auxiliary brakes

    If you brake a lot in a short time, the brake pad can become worn. The coating can melt, and destroy the friction between block and disc. This is called glazing. The brakes can also overheat and start to burn.

    This brake pad is glazed.

    On long downhills, trucks have to brake a lot. To prevent glazing or heating, the truck has auxiliary brakes, which can relieve the brake pads.

    There are different auxiliary brakes, and it is important that you know the auxiliary brakes of the truck you will be driving. Modern trucks alternate between which brakes it uses by itself. If you drive an older car, you have to change which brake you use yourself.

    The auxiliary brake works best at high revs.

    Engine brake

    Engine brake is also called exhaust brake. The brake closes or narrows the discharge of exhaust from the cylinders, so that the pressure in the cylinders increases. Then the working pace of the cylinders becomes lower, and the effect of the engine lower. In some modern trucks, the engine brake can be applied by lightly pressing the brake pedal.

    This is what the mechanism in the exhaust brake looks like. The lid can be opened and closed.

    Electromagnetic brake

    Electromagnetic brake is a set of brake discs around the intermediate shaft, controlled by electromagnetism. This brake is powerful, but it can get very hot with use. As electric operation becomes more common for heavy vehicles, electromagnetic braking systems may become more important. They can also function as a dynamo. Dynamo creates electricity from movement, which is useful in an electric car.

    An electromagnetic brake sits on the intermediate shaft, and slows the rotation.

    Oil retarders

    Oil retarders are also called turbine brakes, or simply retarders. This brake is quite common. It is attached to the intermediate shaft, right up to the gearbox.

    The retarder is between the gearbox and intermediate shaft.

    When you turn on the retarder, compressed air enters an oil chamber in the retarder. The oil is then forced out of the chamber and into a rotor which is connected to the intermediate shaft. The oil slows down, i.e. decelerates, the speed of the intermediate shaft so that the wheels spin more slowly.

    The retarder can also ensure that the truck maintains the same speed at all times.

    The retarder is very efficient, but it can get hot. The driver is then notified and can turn off the retarder from the cab.

    Lever to turn the retarder on and off.

    Slippery road!

    If you are driving on slippery roads, it is a good idea to turn off the automatic auxiliary brakes. On smooth roads, it is wise to have full control over the rpm and the power in the drive shaft.

    Dangers when using the auxiliary brake

    It is important not to overuse the truck's brakes. You should not drive in such a way that you have to brake and accelerate all the time.

    You must also limit the use of the auxiliary brakes - it is not good for either the brake or the vehicle if they are used too much:

    • If the driver uses the auxiliary brake lever much more than the brake pedal, the action can be automated. Then the driver will probably also use the auxiliary brake in an emergency, when it would actually have been wiser to use the brake pedal.
    • The auxiliary brake only brakes the drive shaft, which on very slippery roads can cause skidding or the engine to stop. This in turn can lead to loss of power steering and loss of control.
    • Electromagnetic auxiliary brake can become so hot that electrical circuits are destroyed and a fire can occur.

    Many trucks have auxiliary brakes that can be turned on and off when needed. You can turn off the automatic auxiliary brakes if you want control over when the auxiliary brakes are to be used.

    3. The vehicle

    3.5 Brake and brake circuit (7/10)

    EBS

    EBS stands for Electronic Brake System, and in Norwegian we call it an electronically controlled brake system. New cars have EBS.

    With EBS, the compressed air valves in the brake circuit are controlled electronically. This makes the brakes work faster, and it enables systems such as anti-spin and stability program.

    Accrual time

    In cars without an electronically controlled brake system, the compressed air must travel through the entire maneuvering section and out to the brake bell when the brake is to be activated. This can take up to 1 second. This delay is called lead time.

    The compressed air has to travel a long way to reach the brakes.

    In cars with EBS, the air can be stored right up to the brake bell, and let in with an electronically controlled valve, which is operated from the brake pedal. This happens very quickly - so new cars no longer have any lead-in time.

    The air is stored entirely at the wheel, and is let in by an electronically controlled valve. Shorter way to travel.

    Other benefits of EBS

    • As the brakes become faster, they also become more precise, and the brakes on the different wheels are activated exactly the same. This provides increased stability.
    • The EBS monitors the wear on the brake pads and adjusts the braking force so that it is the same on all wheels, even if the wear is different.
    • Hill start assistance: The EBS holds the brake for a short while after the brake pedal has been deactivated. The vehicle thus stands still, instead of rolling backwards instantly.
    • The EBS reads the axle load, so the driver can see it on a panel in the cab.

    3. The vehicle

    3.5 Brake and brake circuit (8/10)

    ABS breaks

    Locked wheels, i.e. wheels that do not roll, cannot steer the car. Locked wheels slide in all directions, completely independent of the wheels' rolling direction. Then you have no control over the vehicle.

    ABS brake is a brake that turns on and off many times during deceleration, so that the wheels alternate between being locked and being free to roll. This allows the vehicle to be partially controlled during deceleration. ABS also ensures that the vehicle does not skid due to locked wheels.

    ABS stands for Anti Blockier System, and in Norwegian you call such brakes anti-lock brakes. The vast majority of vehicles in Norway have ABS brakes, and it is mandatory for trucks.

    Important about ABS!

    ABS does not work if you drive below 10 km/h, nor when reversing.

    Modern trucks have ABS brakes.

    Use of ABS

    During normal, controlled braking, the brake pad is calmly and controlled pressed onto the brake disc, slowing down the wheels, or stopping them gradually. Then there is no need to steer at the same time as braking, so the ABS is not activated.

    The ABS is only activated in situations where the wheels lock due to heavy braking - so-called emergency braking. The ABS then ensures that the car can still be steered, so that evasive maneuvers become easier. When the wheels are rolling, there is also less likelihood of skidding.

    The ABS kicks in during emergency braking, and can help you steer away.

    ABS only helps with emergency braking

    You should drive a car with ABS in the same way as you would drive a car without ABS. This means that you cannot drive faster in corners or on smooth roads even if you have ABS. Your wheels can still slide. On dry roads, a car with ABS can actually have a longer braking distance than a car without ABS.

    The point of ABS is therefore not to save you in normal driving, but to help you in emergency braking.

    How does the ABS work?

    ABS is just like EBS – a system that controls some of the components in the brake circuit. The ABS uses the same computer as the EBS, and the two systems also share several components.

    The computer perceives the revolutions in each wheel, through sensors. When the revolutions stop due to emergency braking, the computer opens the control valve at the wheels, and reduces the braking force, so that the wheel is no longer locked. Then the valve closes again, and the wheel locks again.

    Then this happens many times one after the other, lightning fast, so that the wheel alternates between rolling and being locked.

    Warning system ABS

    When you turn on the ignition, the ABS warning light on the dashboard lights up. If the warning does not go off, there is a fault with the ABS. The brakes still work, but the fault must be repaired as soon as possible.

    If you receive a warning about a fault with the ABS brakes, the truck must not be used. You must carefully drive to the nearest workshop to have the fault rectified. If the ABS does not work, dangerous situations can arise, especially on gravel, wet or slippery roads.

    Wagon trains with faulty ABS can skid on a semi-trailer/trailer during heavy braking, which in turn can lead to an ugly head-on accident for oncoming traffic.

    Control and maintenance

    The electronic ABS circuit tests itself every time you turn on the ignition, and tells you if something is wrong. All you have to do is watch the warning light. It should light up at start-up and turn off immediately. In some trucks, the lamp goes out when the wheels have started to move forward, or when the speed is over 7 km/h.

    ASR

    ASR stands for Anti Slip Regulation, and we call it anti-spin regulation in Norwegian.

    ASR adjusts the rotations of the wheels in relation to each other, to improve road grip. The revolutions are adjusted by braking the wheels, or by changing the engine power.

    ASR can slow down wheels

    If one drive wheel spins when the truck is to drive, the ASR system sends air into the service brake of the fastest spinning wheel. When the wheel has slowed down so much that it has the same speed as the other wheel, ASR switches off. Now the wheels have the same speed, and the spinning wheel can be assisted by the other wheel's torque, to gain traction and to move the vehicle forward. Simply put, the system ensures that the wheels work together better.

    ASR can change the engine output

    If the speed is over 30 km/h, the ASR adjusts the revolutions of the wheels by adjusting the engine power.

    When the truck is in motion, the drive wheels may begin to spin when the vehicle accelerates. In such a situation, the drive wheels will rotate faster than the free wheels which are not spinning. ASR perceives this, and causes the fuel nozzles to reduce the fuel injection into the pistons. Engine power goes down. In such cases, ASR can adjust the revolutions with braking force in addition, to get the wheels at the same rotational speed.

    Turn off ASR

    The engine power adjustment can be turned off from the cab. It can be useful in situations where you have to pull heavily on roads with loose surfaces, such as gravel, or if you have chains on the wheels.

    At speeds below 40 km/h, the threshold for activating ASR is increased. Then ASR will accept some loss of traction.

    Torque

    The force with which the shafts are rotated. Measured in Newton meters (Nm).

    Torque is a characteristic of the car, just like horsepower. But as a rule, we talk about torque as the power a wheel has in a given situation, and how this power can be best utilised. RPM affects the torque in a car, and the correct RPM provides effective acceleration.

    ESP

    ESP stands for Electronic Stability Programme, and we can call it electronic stability control in Norwegian.

    Among other things, ESP uses the sensor of the ABS system to monitor the number of revolutions and the angle of the wheels - i.e. the actual behavior of the car. This is compared with data on the driver's choice of engine power and steering angle - i.e. what is the desirable behaviour. The system detects when the actual and the desired behavior do not match.

    When a car skids, revolutions and wheel angles are not what the driver wants. ESP detects this and applies the brakes where needed.

    To turn off a system

    ABS, EBS, ESP and other systems use many of the same components and sensors in the truck to function. If the driver chooses to switch off a system, this will in turn affect other functions. If you turn off anti-spin/traction control, for example, ESP will stop working.

    Therefore, do not switch off a function before you have checked in the truck's instruction book about the consequences and how the various systems depend on each other.

    3. The vehicle

    3.5 Brake and brake circuit (9/10)

    Condensation in the compressed air system

    When air is compressed, it becomes hot. It is therefore hot compressed air that enters the compressed air system. When hot air is cooled, it loses moisture - and then condensation, or dew, forms in the compressed air system. The condensation collects in small pools of water inside the system.

    It is never good to have water in a compressed air system, and when it is below zero it can be fatal. The water can freeze, preventing the valves in the brake circuit from working properly.

    Drain

    The water must be drained away. There are many different solutions to this problem and it varies from truck to truck. Modern lorries have systems where the drainage takes place completely automatically, and older lorries you have to drain yourself. This is stated in the instruction manual for the truck.

    Air dryer

    Modern trucks have air dryers in the brake circuit. This drains by itself, as long as the drain valve is working.

    The air dryer is located right after the compressor, so the compressed air has to pass through the air dryer before it gets further into the compressed air tanks and the rest of the system.

    This is what the air dryer looks like. As a rule, the air dryer is automatically drained through a hole in the bottom of its container.

    Inside the air dryer are balls that attract moisture.

    Drain tank

    On older trucks without air dryers, you must drain the brake system of water by opening valves at the bottom of the compressed air tanks. This is called draining. The valves are opened by pulling a ring. The tanks must be emptied regularly, and if it is below +5° they must be emptied every day. When it is warmer outside, you should drain 1-2 times a week.

    You must keep the valve open until dry air comes out.

    The tank opens with the ring hanging on the underside.

    Wet tank

    Older trucks have their own wet tank, in which the water collects. Then it is the tank that must be emptied.

    Borrow air

    As you understand, there is nothing dangerous about draining air from the truck. It uses and produces air all the time. You can take advantage of this, for example if you need air for a tyre. Then you can borrow air from the truck's brake circuits.

    In principle, you can drain from any brake circuit valve. But many trucks have their own valve designed for this, easily accessible and at a good working height. Here you can connect a hose and fill tires or other things directly from the truck.

    Air outlet behind the left tire on the front axle.

    Frost protection

    Trucks that are drained through a tank also have something called frost protection. Antifreeze is a technical alcohol, which works inside the compressed air system and prevents condensed water from freezing.

    If the truck has frost protection, you must ensure that the tank is never empty. You must also ensure that the lorry uses anti-freeze, so you know that it prevents frost. You can check this by seeing that there is less frost protection in the container.

    3. The vehicle

    3.5 Brake and brake circuit (10/10)

    Inspection and maintenance of brakes

    A truck with faulty brakes can be fatal. Therefore, you need to know how to check for faults in the brake system. Even if the brake circuits are not directly accessible to you, there are several tests you can do from the cab and by listening to the car.

    You are responsible for the vehicle when you are on the road - and if you learn to identify faults, you can avoid accidents.

    Here we will look at:

    • Identification of leakage in the feeder part, maneuvering part and parking brake
    • Identification of leakage between circuits
    • Checking the air dryer, protection valve and compressor
    • Control of warping

    Leakage in the brake circuit

    Leakage in the brake circuits means that the compressor has to work to maintain pressure. Low pressure in the brake circuits gives you less braking power to use, and in practice this means that you cannot brake as much in a short time. If the brake circuit is empty, the parking brake is applied and the car stops.

    Listen for leaks

    Make sure the brake circuit has full pressure. You can see this from the display in the cab. When you know the pressure is ok, you can stop the engine and walk around the car while listening. If you hear air seeping out, you have a leak in the feeder part.

    To find out if you have a leak in the steering part, place an object between the brake pedal and the driver's seat, so that the brake is activated. Then you take another round while listening. If you hear anything now, there is a leak in the maneuvering part.

    You can also listen for leaks in the parking brake circuit. Then you put wheel chocks in front and behind the drive wheels, and remove the parking brake. If you hear a leak now, it's in the parking area.

    Leakage between brake circuits

    When the brake circuits have normal working pressure, of between 7 and 12 bar, they share air. Then both circuits will lose air if you drain the tank of one of them. But at 6 bar the protection valve shuts the circuits off from each other. At pressures below 6 bar, only the circuit you drain is drained.

    You can check that the protection valve is working, and whether there is leakage between the circuits, by draining the brake circuits:

    • Drain circuit 1 down to 5 bar. Then circuit 2 should have 6 bar left, because the protection valve has shut off this circuit when the pressure dropped to 6.
    • Then drain circuit 2 down to 3 bar. Then circuit 1 should still have 5 bar.

    If the circuits do not behave as described above, there may be a leak or fault with the protection valve, or a leak somewhere in the circuit.

    Overview of brake pressure in the cab.

    Drain circuit

    To drain a circuit, open the valve on the compressed air tank of the circuit you want to drain.

    Control of components

    Many of the components of the braking system are completely inaccessible to you. But some you can still control.

    Check protection valve

    Pump the brake pedal until you have 4-5 bar in the circuit. A warning should then go off in the cab about low brake pressure. Then drain circuit 1, and check that circuit 2 maintains a pressure of 4–5 bar. At the next check, do the opposite: pump the brake until it is 4–5 bar, and drain circuit 2. Then circuit 1 must maintain a pressure of 4–5 bar.

    Check compressor

    Pump the brake pedal until the pressure is 4-5 bar. Start the engine and keep the revs high. Check that the pressure on the manometer or the display rises. Now you see that the compressor creates compressed air.

    You can also check that the compressor is sending in clean compressed air, by tapping compressed air in the palm of your hand. Make sure you catch the first burst of compressed air that comes when you open the valve. Greyish moisture in the hand indicates oil in the compressed air, and a defective compressor.

    Check for moisture in compressed air

    New cars with an air dryer must not have moisture in the compressed air. If the compressed air is moist, the air dryer must have a new filter, or it must be replaced. To check for moisture, you can squeeze air into the palm of your hand, as described above. Make sure you capture the first air that comes out of the tank. The hand should not get wet or damp at all.

    Control of warping

    Skew pull on the brake means that the car pulls to the right or left under braking. Skewed traction results from the wheel on one side braking more strongly than the wheel on the other side.

    To control yaw, you should keep your speed low, apply the brakes and release the steering wheel grip. See that the car keeps a steady course straight ahead.

    You can continue to drive even if you discover misalignment, but you should repair it as soon as possible. Skewed traction makes the car unpredictable.

    3. The vehicle

    3.6 Light and the electrical system (1/2)

    The lantern

    Before, it was incandescent lamps that were most common. Today, halogen, LED and xenon are used.

    Screen

    In the picture below, you see the lamp with dipped beam and parking light. The light bulbs sit inside a dish that reflects light. Inside the bulb for the dipped beam is a small lampshade, which means that the bulb only shines upwards, and not downwards. Low beam is therefore slightly darker at the bottom. The light shining upwards hits the parabola and is reflected forward.

    The light of the truck

    The lights on the truck must ensure that you see and that others can see you. It is important to have the right lighting equipment. The vehicle regulations contain precise descriptions of requirements for lights on vehicles. Here we will take the most important ones.

    Low beam

    The low beams must illuminate at least 40 meters of the road in front of the car.

    High beam

    High beams must illuminate the road for at least 100 metres, and be yellow or white.

    Cornering and fog lights

    You must have two approved lights that are used as cornering and fog lights. They must be connected so that they cannot light up without the parking lights, rear lights and license plate lights lighting up at the same time.

    Working lights

    The work light must be white or yellow, and connected in the same way as the cornering and fog lights. It should therefore not be possible to use it without the parking lights, rear lights and license plate lights being on. In the cabin, there must be a warning lamp that warns if the work light is on.

    Reversing lights and marker lights

    Reversing lights must only be on when reversing. Marker lights must be white and oriented forwards. All cars wider than 2.30 meters must have marker lights.

    Working lights

    Control of light

    You must also check that the lights are working properly. It is done with visual inspection:

    • Check that the bulbs are working. If you are going to change the bulb yourself, do not touch the bulb with your hands. Dirt from the hands solidifies when the bulb heats up, and the light deteriorates.
    • Test the lamp wipers and see that they leave a clear surface.
    • Check that there are no cracks in the glasses.
    • Check that the reflectors have no rust or other damage. They should be glossy, so they reflect the light correctly.
    • All reflectors must be in place and clean. Reflectors can fade over time, become damaged or wear off.

    3. The vehicle

    3.6 Light and the electrical system (2/2)

    The electrical system

    Now we will look at the most important components of the electrical system. The location of the various components may vary from truck to truck.

    Dynamo

    The dynamo creates electrical current from the rotation of the crankshaft, and the truck uses this current during normal driving. The dynamo also supplies power to the battery. When the engine is off, the alternator is off.

    The dynamo is on the engine.

    Battery

    The battery stores power from the alternator, so that the truck has power when the engine is off. When the engine is off, the power consumers must draw power from the battery. The battery also provides power for starting the engine.

    A truck usually has two series-connected batteries with 12 volts, which give 24 volts in the circuit.

    Starting

    The starter is like a small electric motor, which starts the diesel engine. The starter starts the engine with electricity from the battery, and is one of the biggest consumers of electricity in the vehicle. It only uses power when starting the engine.

    Fuses

    All circuits are designed to withstand a certain amount of current. If they receive more current than they are designed for, they can get hot and start to burn. To avoid this, power circuits each have their own fuse, which breaks the power circuit if it gets too hot. When the current circuit is broken, it can no longer conduct current, and the generation of heat stops.

    If a fuse blows, it must be replaced with a new fuse. If you are going to do this yourself, you must make sure that you insert the correct fuse, with the correct capacity. You must never insert a fuse with too large a capacity.

    Basically, the circuit must withstand many of the power consumers being turned on, so the fuses must not blow during normal operation. When you have problems with fuses, you should always consider whether there could be something wrong with the electrical system.

    Main switch

    The main switch cuts the contact between the power consumers and the battery, so that the system is completely de-energized. It cuts all power, except the tachograph.

    In addition to the main switch, there are also many other switches in the power circuits, which turn various instruments in the truck on and off. The switches turn off components by cutting off the power supply.

    The ignition

    The ignition is activated with the car key. When you insert the key and turn, you turn on power consumers such as lights and air conditioning. If you turn the key even more, you start the starter. The starter starts the engine.

    Power consumers

    The power consumers are essentially everything that uses power, such as windscreen wipers, lights, starters and radios.

    Auxiliary start with the battery

    Lorries often have downtime while driving where power consumers such as heating, axle load monitor, lifting and lowering instruments, radio or other things are switched on. When the car is stationary, the alternator does not produce electricity, so in such cases the battery can be drained. Then you cannot start the car without help. To prevent such a situation, many trucks have two circuits that are independent of each other: one circuit for consumption, and one for starting the truck.

    If you have a flat battery, you may be able to get starting help from another car, or from a starter battery. However, you must check this in the instruction manual - there are many modern cars that can neither give nor receive starting assistance.

    Starting aid with battery.

    Approach

    If you are going to give the car jump-start with a battery, it must be done correctly. There is a lot that can be destroyed if you connect incorrectly. You must also have cables that are thick enough. The connection must be made in the correct order:

  • Attach the cable to the positive coil of the battery you are going to draw power from.
  • Attach the other end of the cable to the positive terminal of the empty battery.
  • Attach the other cable to the negative pole of the battery you are going to draw power from.
  • The other end of the cable should not be in the negative pole of the battery without power. The cable must be attached to a conductive place a short distance away from the battery. It is this cable that starts the transmission of current, and sparks may occur when connected. The sparks should not occur on top of the battery - there could be explosive gas there.
  • Once you have started the car, the cables must be disconnected. You do this in the opposite order to the connection: connect the negative cable from the empty battery, then from the battery with power. Disconnect the positive cable on the empty battery, and then from the battery with power.
  • Cracked gas

    Explosion gas is a gas that consists of hydrogen gas and oxygen gas at the same pressure and temperature. It can occur at the batteries of a vehicle, as a product of the chemical process that charges them.

    Carbon dioxide explodes if ignited. You must therefore be careful with sparks and fire around the battery on the truck. This is particularly relevant during assisted start.

    Battery acid

    Inside the batteries is battery acid. The battery acid stores energy, which the battery converts into electricity when it is used.

    The acid is in separate chambers inside the battery, and all chambers have screw caps on top. The acid level must be checked regularly, and if it is too low, it must be topped up with distilled water. In addition to this, you should regularly check how efficient the battery is.

    Battery on truck. The blue knobs are screw caps down to the battery chambers.

    Measure acid weight

    A battery is good if it is charged efficiently. A battery that charges poorly, or fails to fully charge at all, is damaged. You can check how well a battery charges by measuring the density of the acid, after charging. This is called measuring the acid weight.

    The acid weight is measured with a hydrometer. Open the screw cap on the chamber you are going to check, insert the hydrometer and take a reading. The different acid weights mean:

    • 1.28–1.26 : fully charged
    • 1.23 : approximately 75 percent charged
    • 1.20 : half charged
    • 1.14 : not charged

    Hydrometer.

    A battery cell can be considered damaged if it has an acid weight of 1.23 or less when the battery should have been fully charged. The battery can also be considered defective if the difference in the acid weight of the different chambers is more than 0.03.

    Remember!

    A low acid weight only means that the battery is damaged if it has been charged for so long that the acid weight should have been higher. If the battery is not charged, the acid weight is low anyway. Also in a working battery.

    3. The vehicle

    3.7 Daily control

    Daily check before driving

    As a driver, you must always be alert and aware of how the vehicle behaves. If you are, you will spot errors in good time. Discovering mistakes too late can be very expensive.

    You must also do a daily vehicle check.

    Under the hood

    • Oil: Pull out the dipstick, wipe off the oil, and put it back in. Pick it up again and check where the level is. Fill oil if necessary, and pay attention to the oil consumption over time.
    • Coolant: Check that you have enough coolant on the vehicle. You can see that directly on the container.

    Around the vehicle

    • Leakage: Walk around the vehicle and see if there is liquid on the ground, which could indicate a leak from the vehicle.
    • Lights: Check that all the lights work and that they are clean.
    • Wheels: Check that the wheels have enough tread depth and that they do not have tears or other damage.
    • Ice and snow: Look for ice or snow that may fall off while driving. It should be removed.

    From the driver's seat

    • Visibility: Do you have sufficient visibility from the driver's seat? The mirrors must be clean.
    • Seat and steering wheel: The steering wheel and seat must be adjusted so that you sit safely and comfortably.
    • Warning lights: See if any of the warning lights light up when the engine is off, and whether some light up when the engine is on. The warning lights warn of errors.
    • Listen: Listen for noises when you start the engine.

    Checking the oil level.

    Daily control – an example

    Here you see an example of how a daily check can be carried out. Remember to familiarize yourself with what must be checked on your particular vehicle.

    EU control

    In the regulations, the control is called periodic control , but it has become common to call it EU control. Ordinary passenger cars must undergo an EU inspection once every two years, but heavy vehicles must be inspected every year.

    The inspection must be carried out at an approved workshop.

    What is being checked?

    The EU inspection must ensure that the vehicles on Norwegian roads are safe for traffic. That's why you check the vehicle's lights, tires and brakes, and other things that are important for safety.

    They also look at the vehicle's emissions, and whether it meets environmental requirements.

    Not approved

    If the vehicle is not good enough, it will not be EU approved. The vehicle must then be repaired and rechecked within a deadline set by the Norwegian Road Administration. Failure to do so will result in the vehicle being isolated.

    4. Load calculation

    4.0 Introduction (1/2)

    Chapter 4: Load calculation

    In this chapter, we will do load calculations. It's not as difficult as you might think, and you need to be able to do it to get a Class C driver's license.

    Here we will go through:

    • 4.1 Important terms
    • 4.2 Load calculation with load calculation form
    • 4.3 Center of gravity of the load – LTP
    • 4.4 Bogie
    • 4.5 Control tasks
    • 4.6 Practice tasks

    Tips

    • Take your time. This material can be a bit difficult, but if you follow the videos and explanations, it will be fine.
    • Find stationery. Then you can write down numbers that you have to remember during the calculations.
    • Use calculator. The calculations are not very difficult, but it is quickly done with sloppy mistakes.
    • Print: It can be smart to print out the load calculation form and road lists, so you get used to doing load calculations on paper. You have to do that on the theory test. Many people find it unfamiliar to calculate on paper, if they have only calculated on a computer before.
    • Learn all the weight concepts. Make sure you understand terms such as payload, total weight and axle load. If you don't fully understand what it is, the load calculation becomes much more difficult.

    Here you can download the load calculation form and road list:

    • Load calculation form
    • Road list

    4. Load calculation

    4.0 Introduction (2/2)

    What is load calculation?

    Load calculation is about taking care of three things:

    • That the vehicle does not weigh more than the vehicle can handle. The license plate states what the vehicle can withstand.
    • That the vehicle does not weigh more than the road can handle. It is stated in the road lists what different roads in Norway can withstand.
    • That the load is correctly placed on the loading platform, so that the weight is distributed as planned.

    4. Load calculation

    4.1 Important concepts

    Important terms in load calculation

    Total weight and axle load

    The total weight of the truck is the weight of everything: vehicle, driver, cargo and passengers. It is simply what the truck weighs if you drive on a scale.

    In the same way that your weight is distributed on the two legs you stand on, the weight of the truck is distributed on the truck's axles. How much each of the axles takes, or weighs, is called axle load.

    Permitted axle load is how much each axle can take.

    What the axle load for the front axle and rear axle is depends on where the load is placed. If the load is far behind, the rear axle will take much of the load's weight. If it is far in front, the front axle will take much of the load's weight.

    If you add up the axle loads, you get the truck's total weight.

    Net weight

    The lorry's curb weight is the weight of the lorry, without driver or load. We often talk about curb weight with the driver , and then 75 kg for the driver is added to the curb weight of the truck.

    Current weight

    Current weight is what the truck actually weighs, if you use a scale. People often talk about current total weight and current axle load.

    The lorry's actual weight is not shown in the registration card. The vehicle registration card cannot know what the truck weighs at any given time.

    Carriage card and road list

    Both the vehicle license and the road list have a maximum permitted total weight and a maximum permitted axle load.

    The carriage card

    • Permitted total weight: how much your vehicle can weigh in total. Everything is included here: the weight of the vehicle, driver, passengers and cargo, and everything else you have in the car.
    • Permitted axle load: how much axle load the front axle and rear axle can have, i.e. how the total weight can be distributed on the axles. In this vehicle license, the permissible axle load on the front axle is 8,000, and on the rear axle it is 11,500.
    • Net weight with driver: the weight of the vehicle, + 75 kg for the driver. The vehicle in this vehicle license weighs 7,550 with driver, i.e. 7,550 – 75 = 7,475 without driver.
    • Own weight axle: how the own weight of the vehicle is distributed on the axles. There is no driver here. The curb weight of 7475 is distributed here with 3300 on the front axle, and 4175 on the rear axle.
    • Permitted payload including passengers: is how much payload the truck allows. You can also find this number by calculating the permissible total weight - curb weight with driver.

    Road list

    The road list shows what are the permitted weights on the road you will be driving on.

    In the road list, you will find the road's use class. You will also find weight tables that show what are the permitted weights in different usage classes.

    There are several road lists, but the most important is the national road list. It is called the pink road list, and is the only one we use in this course. It is also the one you will use for the theory test at the National Road Administration.

    Load calculation form

    The load calculation form is useful to use when calculating loads. A completed form shows the weight restrictions for both road and vehicle, and it shows how much load the front axle and rear axle must take.

    4. Load calculation

    4.2 Load calculation with load calculation form

    Load calculation with load calculation form

    Now we will go through the load calculation with the load calculation form. Print out or draw a diagram on a piece of paper and follow the exercise.

    Load calculation with load calculation form

    We go through the exercise from the film:

    We will drive the E6 through Nordland. Then we have to find the chapter for normal transport for Nordland, in the pink road list.

    Here we see the E6 from the Trøndelag border to the border of Troms and Finnmark. It is bk 10/50, i.e. utility class 10/50.

    We must remember that.

    Then we check the permissible axle loads. In the vehicle license, the permissible axle loads are 8000 / 11500.

    To find permitted axle loads in the road list, we have to scroll to table 1 axle load table.

    Most front axles are free-wheeling wheels, i.e. an axle without operation. It's ours too. Permitted axle load is 10 tonnes.

    Our rear axle is a drive axle, and has a permitted axle load of 11.5 tonnes.

    We enter the permitted axle loads in the load calculation form. Remember to convert tonnes to kg! Now our load calculation form looks like this:

    Our front axle has permissible axle loads of 10,000 and 8,000 kg. We have to stay within the strictest limits, which is 8,000. We strike 10,000.

    On the rear axle, the limit is 11,500 kg anyway, so we don't need to iron anything out.

    We are then left with an axle load of 8000 / 11500. We know that both axle loads are permitted, according to both the vehicle license and road list. But we have to check what total weight we get with these axle loads, and whether it is allowed.

    The total weight will be 8000 + 11500 = 19500.

    Is 19500 permissible total weight? In the vehicle license, the permitted total weight is 19,500, so it is ok. In the road list, we have to look in table 2 vehicle weight table.

    It says that motor vehicles with 2 axles, excluding buses, can weigh 19,000 kg. 19,500 is therefore 500 kg too much.

    We have to reduce the total weight by 500 kg. That means we have to reduce on one of the axes. We can choose which, and choose the rear axle this time. We are reducing the axle load from 11,500 to 11,000.

    The vehicle weight is then reduced to 19,000, and we are within the permitted total weight.

    Then we can enter the specific weights. They are on the vehicle registration card.

    Own weight axle is how much of the own weight rests on the front axle, and how much rests on the rear axle. We must enter this into the form.

    When we enter the weight of the front axle, we must add the weight of the driver, of 75 kg. Thus, the specific weight of the front axle is 3300 + 75 = 3375. The rear axle is 4175.

    Once the dead weights have been entered, we can calculate the axle load - dead weight. Then we find the payload.

    4. Load calculation

    4.3 Center of gravity of the load – LTP

    LTP

    In a fully completed load calculation form, it is stated which axle loads you must have. For example, we found out that we should have an axle load of 8,000 at the front, and 11,000 at the rear. But where should the load be placed to achieve these axle loads?

    LTP

    We go through the exercise from the film.

    In the load calculation form, we calculated that we should have axle loads of 8000 / 11000. To achieve exactly that weight distribution, the payload must be placed on the LTP.

    LTP is a point on the load plane, which is calculated after the axle loads have been calculated.

    Formula for LTP is:

    We have calculated the front axle payload in the load calculation form. It is 4625. The wheelbase can be found in the vehicle license plate, and it is 5400 mm, i.e. 540 cm. Total payload is 11450.

    The LTP for this planned shipment will therefore be 218.

    This means that the LTP is 218 cm in front of the rear axle. That is where the load should be placed, to get an axle load of 8000/11000.

    4. Load calculation

    4.4 Bogie

    Load calculation with bogie

    Now we will do another load calculation. But this time with a truck with one axle at the front, and a bogie at the back.

    We will drive this truck, on the E39 Klett x E6 - Møre and Romsdal border, in Trøndelag county.

    First, we check which use class the road has. We look up Trøndelag county - normal transport in the road list. It says that E39 Klett x E6 - Møre and Romsdal border is bk 10/50.

    Then we check the permissible axle loads. Permitted axle loads are 8000 / 19000 in the vehicle license.

    Then we have to go to the road list and find table 1 axle load table.

    Our front axle is free-rolling and can weigh 10 tonnes. Our rear axle is a bogie, i.e. two axles with an axle distance of less than 1.8 m. This means that we have to look at the row for Load from two axles.

    To find the permissible axle load for Load from two axles (bogie), we need the axle distance of the bogie.

    Wheelbases can be found in point 9 of the vehicle registration card. It says 4400/1360. The first axle distance is the distance from the front axle to the front axle of the bogie. The second wheelbase is the distance from the bogie's front axle to the rear axle. Here we see that it is 1360, i.e. 1.36 metres.

    In table 1, we see that a bogie with a wheelbase of 1.36 can have an axle load of 18 tonnes.

    But here are two footnotes!

    The only footnote we will concern ourselves with here is footnote 2. It allows us to increase the axle load to 19 tons if the truck has twin mounted wheels and air suspension. Do we have it?

    We have to check that in the vehicle registration card. In point 6 we see that it says YES on air suspension. To check twin wheels, we can look in point 12. There it says T for twin wheels.

    Since we have both air suspension and twin wheels, the permissible axle load is 19 tonnes.

    Important! There is not always an S or a T in point 12. On the theory test at the National Roads Administration, you will always be told whether the truck has twin wheels or not, whether it is important for the task.

    We enter permitted axle loads into the load calculation form:

    When we have crossed out the highest ones, we are left with 8000 / 19000. That gives a total weight of 27000. Is that allowed?

    In the vehicle license, the permitted total weight is 27,000, so it's ok.

    To check the permitted total weight in the road list, we have to look up table 2. Here we see that a motor vehicle with 3 axles can weigh 26 tonnes.

    Footnote 6 states that motor vehicles with alternative fuel, e.g. electricity, can weigh even more. We use diesel, so we don't have to worry about that footnote.

    Since the permissible total weight is only 26 tonnes, we have to reduce. We cannot weigh 27 tonnes. We reduce 1,000 kg on the rear axle, and get a new total weight of 26,000 kg.

    Since we are now within all permitted axle loads and permitted total weight, we can subtract the dead weights and find the permitted payload.

    Remember to add 75 kg for the driver on the unladen weight of the front axle!

    LTP

    Now that we have found our axle loads, we need to calculate the LTP.

    Wheelbase

    In our vehicle license we have two wheelbases. Which should enter the formula for LTP?

    When you have a bogie, it is the distance from the front axle to the center of the bogie that must be entered. To find it, you must first find the center of the bogie, by dividing the axle distance in the bogie by two: 1360 / 2 = 680.

    Then you add it together with the distance from the front axle to the bogie, i.e. 4400. 4400 + 680 = 5080. So 508 cm.

    LTP then becomes 2325 x 508 / 13605 = 86.8 cm.

    And when you have a bogie, the LTP is indicated from the center of the bogie. So the LTP is 86.8cm in front of the center of the bogie.

    Triple bogie

    Load calculation with a truck with a triple bogie is done in the same way as for a truck with a regular bogie. But now you have to check the number of steering axles, and the distance from the first to the last axle.

    Here we will go through a load calculation with a truck with a triple bogie of bk 10/50.

    Axle load

    The front axle is a single free-rolling axle, and the permissible axle load is 10 tons according to table 1. But our vehicle license only allows 9 tons, so we cannot load 10 tons.

    Our rear axle is a triple bogie with wheelbases of 1360 / 1300. Both distances are within 1.30-1.79, so the axle can weigh 24 tonnes. The vehicle license also allows 24 tonnes.

    Vehicle weight

    The axle loads of 9,000 / 24,000 give a vehicle weight of 33,000 kg, i.e. 33 tonnes.

    Permitted vehicle weight in the vehicle license is 33,000 kg, so we are within that. In table 2 we have to look at Motor vehicles with 4 axles and more. Here there are 3 footnotes.

    Footnote 1 states that both footnotes 2 and 3 must be fulfilled.

    Footnote 2 says that we must have air suspension and twin-mounted wheels on the drive shaft.

    Footnote 3 says we must have at least 2 steering wheels.

    Both air suspension, twin wheels and the number of steering wheels are listed in the vehicle registration card:

    We thus fulfill footnotes 2 and 3, and thus also footnote 1. This means that we can look at the row for 4-axle motor vehicle in table 2, to find the permitted total weight. Had we not complied with the footnotes, we would have received the same permissible vehicle weight as for a three-axle truck.

    Distance from first to last axle is 3550 + 1360 + 1300 = 6210, i.e. 5.8 m or greater. This gives a permissible vehicle weight of 32 tonnes. We therefore have to reduce 1 tonne. We choose to reduce the rear axle, so that it gets an axle load of 23,000.

    Self-weight and payload

    We enter the specific weights and find the payload.

    LTP

    Then we will calculate the LTP.

    The axle distance that must be included in the formula for LTP when you have a triple bogie is the distance from the front axle to the center of the triple bogie. The center of the triple bogie can be found by adding up the two axle distances in the triple bogie and dividing by 2:

    1360 + 1300 = 2660. 2660 / 2 = 1330. Center of triple bogie is 1330 mm.

    Then you add it together with the distance from the front axle to the first axle in a triple bogie, which is 3550. It becomes:

    3550 + 1330 = 4880. Converted to cm, it becomes 488.

    The formula for LTP then becomes 1965 x 488 / 17555 = 54.6 cm.

    Bogie front and rear

    If the truck has front and rear bogies, you must look at Load from two axles for both front axle and rear axle, when you find the permissible axle load in table 1.

    And when calculating LTP, it is the distance from the center of the front bogie to the center of the rear bogie that must be included in the formula.

    For example: truck with wheelbases 1500/3500/1390. It is 1500 / 2 = 750 in to the center of the front bogie. This distance is added together with the wheelbase between the front and rear bogie, i.e. 3500. The rear bogie has a wheelbase of 1390, so it is 1390 / 2 = 695 to the centre. 750 + 3500 + 695 = 4945. So 494.5 cm.

    4. Load calculation

    4.6 Practice tasks (1/11)

    Practice tasks

    We end this chapter with practice exercises in load calculation, so that you can practice what you have learned.

    4. Load calculation

    4.6 Practice tasks (2/11)

    Task 1

    Use the wagon card as a starting point, fill in the values ​​in a load calculation form and answer the questions.

    You must not use a road list in this assignment.

    Questions

  • What is the net weight on the front axle, including driver?
  • What is the maximum permissible total weight?
  • What is the permissible front and rear axle load according to the vehicle registration card? What will it add up to?
  • You must reduce the weight on the rear axle to stay within the permitted total weight. What will be the axle load on the rear axle?
  • Does the truck have air suspension?
  • Summary for task 1

  • Net weight on front axle, including driver - 6425 kg
  • Maximum permissible total weight - 26,000 kg
  • Permitted axle load at the front is 8,000 kg, and at the rear it is 19,000 kg. There will be 27,000 kg in total.
  • Permitted total weight is 26,000 kg. So we have to reduce 1000 kg. If we reduce 1,000 at the rear, the axle load at the rear is 18,000 kg.
  • Does the truck have air suspension? - No
  • This load calculation form tells what each individual axle can withstand, according to the vehicle registration card. When you have to calculate the payload before a transport, you must also take into account restrictions from the road list and tables.

    In this vehicle license, the permissible axle loads are 8000 / 19000. The total weight is 27000. But the permissible total weight is only 26,000, so here you cannot fully load both axles. This means that you have to reduce a bit on one or both axles.

    4. Load calculation

    4.6 Practice tasks (3/11)

    Task 2

    Use the wagon card as a starting point, fill in the values ​​in a load calculation form and answer the questions. You must not use a road list in this assignment.

    Questions

  • What is the permissible bogie load?
  • What is the permissible front payload?
  • What is the total permissible payload?
  • Where is the load's center of gravity?
  • What is the permissible front axle load?
  • What is the specific weight of the front axle with driver?
  • What is the permissible total weight?
  • Summary for task 2

  • Permitted bogie load - 18,000 kg
  • Permitted front payload - 3005 kg
  • Permitted payload in total - 17085 kg
  • The center of gravity of the load is 98.23 cm in front of the center of the bogie. The calculation becomes 3005 x 558.5 / 17085 = 98.23.
  • Permitted front axle load - 8000 kg
  • The curb weight of the front axle with driver - 4995 kg
  • Permitted total weight - 26,000 kg
  • 4. Load calculation

    4.6 Practice tasks (4/11)

    Task 3

    You will drive a lorry with cargo through Nordland county, on the E6 Trøndelag gr. / Smalvatnet-Troms and Finnmark gr. / Gratangseidet. You must make full use of the front axle.

    Questions

  • What is the class of use on this stretch?
  • What will be the payload up front?
  • What will be your total payload?
  • Where does LTP end up?
  • What will be the front axle load?
  • What is the specific weight of the front axle with driver?
  • What will be your total weight?
  • Does the truck have air suspension?
  • How big is the wheelbase in the bogie?
  • Summary for task 3

  • Use class on the section is Bk 10/50
  • Maximum permissible front payload - 3285 kg
  • Maximum permissible total payload - 17055 kg
  • The center of gravity of the load is 109.4 cm in front of the center of the bogie.
  • Maximum permissible front axle load - 8000 kg
  • The weight of the front axle with driver - 4715 kg
  • Maximum permissible total weight - 26,000 kg
  • The car has air suspension
  • The wheelbase in the bogie is 136 cm
  • Reduce the rear axle!

    Permitted axle loads will be 8000 / 19000 after we have crossed the highest. This gives a total weight of 27,000 in total. But according to table 2, the permissible total weight on the road we will drive is only 26,000, so we cannot weigh 27,000.

    We remove 1000 kg from the rear axle, and get the axle loads 8000 / 18000. This gives a front axle payload of 8000–4715=3285, and a rear axle payload of 18000–4230=13770.

    4. Load calculation

    4.6 Practice tasks (5/11)

    Task 4

    You will drive this truck on a Bk 8/32 road. When you are given the usage class, you do not need to look in the road list.

    Use the wagon card and tables as a starting point, fill in the values ​​in a load calculation form and answer the questions.

    Questions

  • What is the maximum permissible bogie load?
  • What is the maximum permissible front payload?
  • What is the maximum permissible total payload?
  • Where is the load's center of gravity?
  • What is the maximum permissible front axle load?
  • What is the specific weight of the front axle with driver?
  • What is the maximum permissible total weight?
  • Does the truck have air suspension?
  • How big is the wheelbase in the bogie?
  • Summary for task 4

  • The largest permitted bogie load for a bogie with a wheelbase of 138 cm is 12,000 kg , in table 1. The wagon license allows 19,000, but you must stay within the lowest limit.
  • The maximum permissible payload at the front is 2065 kg . You get that by subtracting the dead weight of the front axle from the permissible axle load of the front axle. You must remember to add the driver's weight (75 kg) to the dead weight of the front axle.
  • The maximum permissible total payload is 7,985 kg. You get that by adding payload front axle and payload rear axle.
  • The load's center of gravity is 129 cm in front of the center of the rear axle. Formula for LTP is payload front axle x wheelbase in cm / total payload. The wheelbase to be entered is the distance from the front axle to the center of the rear bogie.
  • The largest permitted front axle load is 8,000 kg , both in the vehicle license plate and table 1.
  • The own weight of the front axle with driver is 5935 kg . You get that by adding up the net weight of the front axle from the vehicle registration card, and a driver of 75 kg.
  • Maximum permissible total weight 20,000 kg . Here it is table 2 that sets the limitation. The vehicle license allows 27,000 kg.
  • The car has air suspension . You can see that in point 6 of the vehicle card.
  • The axle distance in the bogie is 138 cm . You can see this in point 9 of the vehicle card.
  • 4. Load calculation

    4.6 Practice tasks (6/11)

    Exercise 5

    You will drive this truck on a Bk 8/32 road.

    Use the wagon card and tables as a starting point, fill in the values ​​in a load calculation form and answer the questions.

    Questions

  • What is the maximum permissible bogie load?
  • What is the maximum permissible front payload?
  • What is the maximum permissible total payload?
  • Where is the load's center of gravity?
  • What is the maximum permissible front axle load?
  • What is the specific weight of the front axle with driver?
  • What is the maximum permissible total weight?
  • Does the truck have air suspension?
  • How big is the wheelbase in the bogie?
  • How many packages of 90 kg can you take with you?
  • Summary for task 5

  • Maximum permissible bogie load - 12,000 kg
  • Maximum permissible front payload - 2195 kg
  • Maximum permissible total payload - 8405 kg
  • The center of gravity of the load is 137.75 cm in front of the center of the rear axle.
  • Maximum permissible front axle load - 8000 kg
  • The weight of the front axle with driver - 5805 kg
  • Maximum permissible total weight - 20,000 kg
  • The car has air suspension
  • The wheelbase in the bogie is 135 cm
  • 8405 / 90 = 93 parcels
  • 4. Load calculation

    4.6 Practice tasks (7/11)

    Exercise 6

    You will drive a bk 6/28 road.

    Use tables, load calculation form and wagon card, and answer the questions.

    Questions

  • What is the payload on the front axle?
  • What is the payload on the rear axle?
  • What is the truck's total payload?
  • What will be the total weight of the truck?
  • What limited your front axle load, was it the vehicle or the road?
  • What limited the rear axle load?
  • Which has the strictest limitation on the total weight, is it table 2 or the vehicle license?
  • What is the truck's net weight without driver?
  • Where is the load's center of gravity?
  • How many packages of 75 kg can you take with you?
  • Conclusion

  • Payload on the front axle is 1695 kg.
  • Payload on rear axle is 2390 kg.
  • The truck's total payload is 4,085 kg. In the load calculation form, we got 5885 kg when we calculated the total weight minus the net weight, i.e. 12000–6155=5885. 5,885 kg is therefore what the vehicle allows us to carry with us in terms of payload. However, we have to stay within the lowest limits, and the permissible payload front axle + permissible payload rear axle is only 4085 kg together. Therefore, our total payload is 4085 kg.
  • The truck's total weight is then total payload + total curb weight: 4085+6115= 10200 kg
  • The vehicle license, i.e. the vehicle, was the strictest. The wagon card allows 4,200 kg, while the axle load table allows 6,000 kg on a free wheel on the road in bk 6/28.
  • The road was the strictest. The axle load table, i.e. table 1 allows 6000 kg on the drive axle on the road in bk 6/28.
  • Road and vehicle had the same restriction, of 12,000 kg. But since the road limited the rear axle, and the vehicle license limited the front axle, the total weight was no more than 10,200 kg.
  • 6040 kg. In the vehicle license it is stated that the curb weight with the driver is 6115 kg. Subtract 75 kg, and you get 6040 kg.
  • LTP is 236.51 cm in front of the rear axle. The formula becomes 1695 x 570 / 4085 = 236.51.
  • 4085 / 75 = 54 parcels.
  • 4. Load calculation

    4.6 Practice tasks (8/11)

    Exercise 7

    You will drive this truck on a bk 8/32 road. Complete the load calculation form and answer the questions.

    Questions

  • What is total payload?
  • Can you make full use of both axles on the vehicle, on the road in utility class 8/32?
  • What is the permissible axle load on free wheels, on the road in use class 8/32?
  • What is the truck's total curb weight with driver?
  • What is the lorry's unladen front axle weight, without driver?
  • What is payload front axle?
  • What is payload rear axle?
  • Which number should be entered as wheelbase in the formula for LTP?
  • How many parcels of 20 kg can you take on the front axle?
  • How many parcels of 20 kg can you take on the rear axle?
  • Conclusion

  • In the load calculation form you can see that the total payload is 5885 kg .
  • Yes. The road did not require us to reduce the weight on the axles. And both axles can be fully utilized: we can load 1,695 kg on the front axle and 4,190 kg on the rear axle without the total weight being too high.
  • 8 tonnes. The usage classes are named after the maximum permissible axle load on free wheels. Use class 8 has a maximum permitted axle load on free wheels of 8 tonnes, and use class 10 has a maximum permitted axle load on free wheels of 10 tonnes.
  • Total net weight with driver is 6115 kg. It's on the vehicle registration card. You can also find it out by adding up the weight of the front axle and the weight of the rear axle and the weight of the driver.
  • 2430 kg. Net weight front axle in the vehicle license is net weight without driver. In the vehicle license, only the total net weight is stated with the driver.
  • Payload front axle is 1695 kg.
  • Payload rear axle is 4190 kg.
  • The wheelbase that must be included in the formula for LTP is 570 . 5700 mm is 570 cm.
  • 1695 / 20 = 84 parcels.
  • 4190 / 20 = 209 parcels.
  • 4. Load calculation

    4.6 Practice tasks (9/11)

    Exercise 8

    You will drive this truck on bkT8-50. Complete the load calculation form with payload and LTP and answer the questions.

    Questions

  • What are the permissible axle loads according to the vehicle license?
  • What are the permissible axle loads according to table 1?
  • What is total payload?
  • What is the permissible vehicle weight according to table 2?
  • What is the curb weight of the front axle without driver?
  • Which wheelbase should enter the formula for LTP?
  • How many parcels of 200 kg can you take with you?
  • Conclusion task 8

  • 9000 / 24000.
  • 8000 for the front axle, which is a free axle. 19,000 for the rear axle, which is a triple bogie with a wheelbase between 1.3 and 1.79.
  • Total payload will be 965+11590= 12555.
  • Permitted vehicle weight according to table 2 is 28 tonnes. Our truck is a motor vehicle with 4 axles, with over 5.8 meters between the first and last axle. The truck has air suspension and two steering axles, so it meets footnotes 1, 2 and 3.
  • Net weight front axle without driver is 6960 kg.
  • 488 cm. It is the distance from the front axle to the center of the rear axle that must be included in the formula. The distance must be stated in cm. The center of the rear axle can be found by adding up the axle distances in the bogie, which here is 1360+1300=2660. If you divide this by two, you get 1330, which is the center of the bogie. This distance is added to the distance from the front axle and the rear to the bogie, i.e. 3550. Then we get 3550+1330=4880. Converted to cm, it is 488.
  • 12555 / 200 = 62 parcels.
  • 4. Load calculation

    4.6 Practice tasks (10/11)

    Exercise 9

    Now you will drive this truck on bk8. Complete the load calculation form with payload and LTP and answer the questions.

    Questions

  • What are the permissible axle loads in the vehicle license?
  • What is the distance from the first to the last axle?
  • What is the permissible vehicle weight according to table 2?
  • Which wheelbase should enter the formula for LTP?
  • What will be the total payload?
  • Conclusion task 9

  • 18000 / 26000.
  • 1500+3500+1390= 6390 mm. So 639 cm, and 6.3 metres.
  • 24000 kg. The truck is a motor vehicle with 4 axles, with air suspension and two steering axles, and with over 5.8 meters from the first to the last axle.
  • The wheelbase to be entered is the distance from the center of the front bogie to the center of the rear bogie. The center of the front bogie is 1500 / 2 = 750 cm into the bogie. The center of the rear bogie is 1390 / 2 = 695 cm into the bogie. The distance from center to center is thus 750 + 3500 + 695 = 4945 mm. Converted to cm, it becomes 494.5 .
  • 7825 kg.
  • 4. Load calculation

    4.6 Practice tasks (11/11)

    Exercise 10

    You will drive this truck on bk8. Calculate the payload and answer the questions.

    Questions

  • What is the distance from the first to the last axle?
  • What is the curb weight of the front axle without driver?
  • What is the permissible vehicle weight according to table 2?
  • What is the permissible front axle payload?
  • Conclusion task 10

  • 3550 + 1310 + 1390 = 6250 mm. So 6.25 metres.
  • 8450 kg. Own weight front axle with driver is 8450 + 75 = 8525 kg.
  • 24000 kg. The truck is a motor vehicle with 4 axles, with air suspension and two steering axles, and with over 5.8 meters from the first to the last axle.
  • -525 kg. The curb weight of 8,525 kg is higher than the permitted axle load of the bk8, which is 8,000 kg. This means that the car cannot drive on bk8. It is too heavy.
  • 5. Load securing

    5.0 Introduction

    Chapter 5: Cargo securing

    In this section we will look at load securing. Load securing is one of the most important things you learn when you get your class C driver's licence. It is dangerous to life, and also a criminal offence, to be careless with the load securing.

    Here we will go through:

    • 5.1 Why secure the load?
    • 5.2 Laws and regulations
    • 5.3 Important terms in load securing
    • 5.4 Security methods
    • 5.5 Things to watch out for when securing cargo
    • 5.6 Example of cargo securing
    • 5.7 Control tasks
    • 5.8 Practice task

    Regulations within cargo securing

    This chapter is based on Norwegian law and EU guidelines for cargo securing. If you follow these, you stay within the legislation and practice in most European countries.

    European Best Practice Guidelines on Cargo Securing for Road Transport

    EU guidelines can be found in the European Best Practice Guidelines on Cargo Securing for Road Transport. They are often called Best Practice, and you can easily find them online. This document is a common basis for good cargo securing - and many of the resources you will use as guidance are based on this very thing.

    International Guidelines on Safe Load Securing for Road Transport

    International Guidelines on Safe Load Securing for Road Transport is another important resource. This is a manual for better load securing on the road, which is also international. Transportfacken's Yrkes- och Arbetsmiljönämnnd (TYA) has created a mini-guide based on this handbook. It's called Lathund, and it has a number of tables that show how much protection you need in different situations. If you are going to work a lot with load securing, you will certainly come across the Lathund tables.

    Reasonable load securing

    There is much in cargo securing that is not regulated by law. Lathund and Best Practice are only recommendations. This does not mean that you can be sloppy with the load securing! Regardless, the law requires your vehicle to be safe. This applies throughout Europe. And for it to be, the load must be properly secured. Poorly secured cargo can have serious consequences.

    Good load securing is important for the roads in Norway and Europe to be safe.

    5. Load securing

    5.1 Why secure the load?

    The forces - A simple introduction

    Why secure cargo?

    The load must be secured to prevent movement. In this chapter, we will look at some concepts from physics, which can describe which forces the load is exposed to and how it behaves when it is transported.

    Gravity

    Gravity pulls things down towards the center of the earth. When you put something on the ground, it is the force of gravity that makes it stay put.

    But, as you know: when you put a coffee cup on the dashboard of your car, it falls over when you start driving - even though gravity is trying to hold it down. The force of gravity is not strong enough, and the coffee cup does not cope with all the movements of the car. It is because of inertial forces.

    The forces of inertia

    When you drive the car, the coffee cup falls over.

    What actually happens is that the coffee cup stays where it was - it cannot keep up with the car that suddenly moves forward. The coffee cup is slow.

    There are many inertial forces. You can experience them when you:

    • accelerates
    • brakes
    • swings

    Gravity is NOT a fuse!

    Although very heavy cargo has a lot of gravity to hold it in place, it must be secured well. Inertia forces increase in line with gravity. Therefore, gravity cannot secure the load alone - gravity can secure the load together with suitable securing equipment.

    Inertial forces in vehicles

    During normal driving, you expose your load to three types of inertial forces:

    • Acceleration – the coffee cup on the dashboard that topples over when the car starts moving, overturns due to inertial forces upon acceleration. The coffee cup cannot keep up with the car's acceleration - it is too slow. The coffee cup falls backwards.
    • Brake - if you keep a steady speed and put the coffee cup on the dashboard, you can make it stay there. But if you brake, it overturns. The coffee cup cannot brake as fast as the car – the coffee cup is slow to brake. The cup overturns because it has a higher speed than its surface. The coffee cup flies forward.
    • Swing - if you swing, the cup can also topple. If you turn quickly, the cup cannot keep up with the turn - it is slow. When the car turns, the cup continues straight ahead, and overturns, because the surface disappears. The cup overturns in the opposite direction to the one you swing.

    Friction

    Friction is not really a force. But we include it here, because it affects the movements of the load. Friction is important for how inertial forces work on the load. Simply put, friction is about how smooth it is, i.e. how much it takes for the load to slide on the loading platform.

    As the friction can help to keep the load on the plane, we can consider it as a kind of load securing. Friction alone is not enough securing, but friction helps to determine how much other securing the load needs.

    5. Load securing

    5.2 Laws and regulations (1/2)

    Laws and regulations for securing cargo

    There are many rules for securing cargo. The most basic ones are:

    § 3 Basic rules for traffic

    Everyone must travel with consideration and be alert and cautious so that no danger can arise or damage be caused and so that other traffic is not unnecessarily obstructed or disturbed.

    § 23 Liability for the condition of the vehicle, etc

    Before the drive begins, the driver must make sure that the vehicle is in a safe and legal condition and that it is properly and legally loaded. He must ensure that the vehicle is also in good condition and properly loaded during use.

    These regulations require you to be alert and considerate in traffic, and to ensure that your vehicle is not a danger to yourself or others. When you drive a truck, you are big and heavy - and therefore there is a lot you have to take into account.

    Regulations on the use of vehicles

    Regulations on the use of vehicles have many provisions on the transport of cargo. But only some of them apply to your particular vehicle, and you will learn these later.

    Some key provisions from this regulation, which apply to almost all heavy vehicles, are:

    • The goods must be positioned so that the driver has good visibility and can drive safely.
    • All required lights and markings must be visible.
    • The weight of the goods must be distributed as much as possible between the wheels on the same axle, and at least 20 per cent of the vehicle's current total weight must be carried by the steering wheels.
    • Goods or fasteners must not drag, fall off or make unnecessary noise. The goods must be secured so that they do not cause damage.

    Steering wheel

    The wheels of a vehicle that can be turned by the steering wheel, i.e. the front axle.

    Secure against the forces of inertia

    The forces of inertia are an important reason why you must secure the load. Do you remember how the coffee cup went?

    Section 3-3 of the regulations on the use of vehicles deals with how to secure the load from shifting when you accelerate, turn or brake. The paragraph sets requirements for how much weight you must secure for:

    Security ahead

    When you brake, the load can move forward. The rules state that the load securing must be strong enough to withstand 0.8 times the forward weight of the goods . As a rule, the inertial forces are greatest in the forward direction.

    Safety to the rear

    When you accelerate, the load can move backwards. At the back, the load securing must withstand 0.5 times the weight of the goods.

    Security sideways

    When turning, the load can move out to the sides. On the sides, the load securing must withstand the same as at the back, namely 0.5 times the weight of the goods.

    But what does this mean?

    But what does it mean that the fuse must withstand 0.8 times the weight of the goods? Or that it must be secured for 1000 kg going forward?

    Imagine a load of 1000 kg. Section 3-3 requires that it must be secured for 0.8 of its weight going forward, i.e. 0.8 x 1000 = 800 kg. That is to say, it must be secured so well that you can pull the load - i.e. pull it forward - with a force of 800 kg, without the fuse breaking.

    If you pull the load from the side, you must be able to pull with a force of 500 kg, i.e. 0.5 x 1000 kg, without the fuse breaking. Then you have secured 500 kg sideways, i.e. 0.5 times the weight of the goods.

    5. Load securing

    5.2 Laws and regulations (2/2)

    EN – European Norm

    Many of the guidelines applied in load securing can be found in tables and lists marked EN.

    EN stands for European Norm, but they are often called European standard. There are many ENs. They set the standard for various things, for example load capacity and lashing hooks. Many of EN are listed in Best Practice.

    In practical use, a European Norm has several functions:

    • They set requirements for how much truck constructions must withstand. Truck manufacturers must comply with these requirements.
    • They provide information about capacity to those who use the vehicle. Often the vehicle's strength is stated together with information about the current standard.
    • They become a certificate of quality, and thus an assurance for the user that the construction is proper. The certificates are directly on the truck, where applicable. The EN number is stated on the certificate.

    EN 12640 sets the standard for the strength of lashing hooks on the loading platform.

    Best practice

    The European Best Practice Guidelines on Cargo Securing for Road Transport are often called Best Practice, and describe a number of recommendations relating to the transport of cargo on European roads. The guidelines are not a piece of legislation, but a guide for safe load securing. In Norway, it is often called good practice, and it is the starting point for much business in cargo securing.

    Combined transport

    When goods are transported by several means of transport, such as car, boat, plane and train, it is called combined transport. Containers are often transported with combined transport, because they can be easily attached to boats, trains and cars.

    In the case of combined transport, there are different rules for securing loads than there are in the case of transport with a single lorry. This is because the forces to which the load is subjected during transport vary with the different means of transport. In the case of combined transport, you must follow your own tables and standards, and if you are unsure, you can consult the Norwegian Armed Forces, the Norwegian Truck Owners' Association or the National Road Administration.

    Things to think about with combined transport:

    • The load carrier, for example the container, does not necessarily have anything in front or behind in combined transport. In cases where the container is turned over during transport, it is a good idea if the load is secured to the front as much as to the rear.
    • To make the load carrier stable in handling and shipping, the load should be evenly distributed.
    • In the case of combined transport, the load experiences additional stresses. Therefore, it may be a good idea to check the load securing when you take over the load. See if it has withstood the transport, and if any lashings need to be re-tightened.

    5. Load securing

    5.3 Important terms in load securing

    Important concepts in cargo securing

    Here we will look at some important concepts within load securing. You've heard many before - but it's nice to have a refresher.

    Here we will look at:

    • Angles
    • Power, weight and strength
    • Kg and daN
    • Friction value and friction coefficient

    Shipping of aluminum drills. The load securing methods visible here are halter lashing and assault lashing.

    Angles

    When securing loads, you must pay attention to the angles in the load securing. It is mainly the angle between the loading plane and the securing mechanisms that is important.

    Power, weight and strength

    In addition to this, the load securing capacity is important. The endurance can also be called the strength or power of the load securing. What the safety equipment can withstand is usually stated directly on the equipment, preferably engraved into an attached medallion or sewn onto a patch.

    The strength of the load securing device is often stated in dekaNewton (daN) and kilo (kg). For example , 2,000 kg/daN can be written on a tension band (lashing). Kilo and dekaNewton can be used interchangeably.

    The unit of force is named after Isaac Newton.

    Kg and daN

    Kg and daN indicate two different things: kg indicates weight, and daN indicates force. Nevertheless, both can indicate the strength of a tension band.

    Why? Imagine a box standing on a loading platform. The box has a mass - i.e. a weight - of 2000 kg. This weight can also be understood as a force, because it pushes the cargo plane downwards towards the ground. The force with which it pushes the plane can be expressed in Newtons.

    Weight is force

    You can say that you need 2000 daN to lift 2000 kg. You can also say that 2000 kg can push an object with a force of 2000 daN, downwards, sideways or upwards, if it is subjected to forces. This happens with the load when you drive a car.

    Kg and dan are almost the same. 2039 kg gives a pressing force of 2000 dan.

    Friction value

    Just like weight and force, friction can also be measured. How much friction one has can be indicated by µ. µ is a coefficient of friction, and is pronounced my.

    One can also talk about friction value - a high friction value means a lot of friction. As mentioned, friction is an important part of load securing. If you have a high friction value, you need less safety equipment than if the friction is low.

    5. Load securing

    5.4 Security methods (1/2)

    Security methods

    In this chapter, we will look at different equipment for securing cargo, and the methods in which this equipment is used. What you use to secure cargo depends on your cargo, and it is very common to combine several methods.

    Here we will go through:

    • Friction
    • Locking
    • Covering up
    • Stamping
    • Lashing

    Friction protection

    Much within load securing is about increasing the friction between the load and the surface. As friction is a safeguard you always have, friction is a good place to start when securing loads. Friction determines how easily your load slides - and thus how much securing you need to use.

    Securing that uses friction to hold the load can be called friction securing. Assault lashing is friction protection. The straps that go over the load hold the load firmly by pushing it down against the ground. The straps are not attached to the load - so only friction keeps it where it is. Had the friction not been there, the load would have slipped out of the lashing lashing.

    Assault lashing.

    With all forms of friction protection, high friction is desirable, as it is what secures the load. But you must always calculate with a margin of safety, because it is dangerous to overestimate the friction value. Take as a starting point the lowest imaginable friction value in each load securing device.

    To increase friction between load and loading plane you can:

    • Ensure that the load and loading plan are dry
    • Press the load down towards the plane, for example with lashings
    • Use a friction mat or other friction-increasing surface
    • Use friction-increasing spray or glue, preferably between load layers

    ATTENTION!

    The friction between load and load plane is important. But don't forget that friction can also be felt elsewhere, for example between the load and the pallet.

    Locking

    Another method of securing cargo is locking. This method is both solid and quick.

    When locking, you can use clamps, bolts or screws, or standardized locking mechanisms made for load securing.

    Locking is mainly used in container transport, and most containers have standardized locks. C containers have one lock in each corner.

    Hook lift containers

    Hooklift containers have a slightly different locking system. Here there are two locks on the short side at the front, and two at the back. Hook-lift containers are not standardized to the same extent as the c-container, and additional securing equipment must be used. Chain is well suited for securing containers.

    The load inside the container!

    When shipping containers, you must both ensure that the container is firmly attached to the vehicle, and that the load inside the container is sufficiently secured. Containers are equipped with lashing hooks.

    C containers

    C-containers are the most common type of container in international shipping operations. It is standardised, with fixed dimensions and a locking system. They can be easily stacked on cargo ships, and one c-container can fit on a truck.

    Covering up

    Covering, or tarpaulin, does not secure the load against the forces. But if what you are transporting can cause dust, it must be covered. It can possibly be moistened with water until it is no longer dusty.

    It is important to remember that cargo can change shape. If a loose material such as sawdust freezes, it can change shape into a massive block. And, if you have moistened the soil, it can quickly start to become dusty again if the weather is nice and the water evaporates.

    Goods must remain in the vehicle!

    Goods that can cause dust, smoke or swirl off the vehicle must be wet, covered with a tarpaulin or net or otherwise prevented from leaving the vehicle during transport.

    This is stated in the regulations on the use of vehicles.

    Stamping

    Stamping, or closing as it is also called, means placing the load close to something, so that it cannot shift.

    You can stamp the load with the vehicle's fixed devices: limbs, partition walls, barriers or stakes if you have them.

    Stamping is effective if done correctly and is often used in conjunction with lashing. It is most common to stamp to secure the future.

    Barrier boom

    Barrier booms are also a way of stamping the load, because the load is placed next to the booms.

    Cargo carriers with boom functionality have rails that run along both sides of the cargo space, often at two heights. The rails have attachment mechanisms adapted to the barrier boom. The fastening mechanisms run along the entire rail, and the booms can thus be fastened where appropriate, according to the load.

    Rails for barrier barriers.

    Lashing

    When lashing the load, secure the load with fiber tape, chain, cable or other suitable rope. Fiber bands, or tension bands, are very common. These are made for lashing and are equipped with a mechanism for tightening and information on endurance.

    For heavier loads, chains or steel ropes are often used to lash the load. This equipment also has markings and a tightening mechanism.

    Lashing hooks

    The cargo floor has lashing hooks, or lashing fasteners, which you attach the lashing to. They vary in number, location and capacity, but normally they can be found along the sides of the cargo space. On a standard superstructure, you can count on the lashing attachment to have a securing capacity, or LC of 2000 daN.

    LC

    Lashing Capacity. This is the most central feature of lashing. LC indicates how much force the lashing can withstand, and is stated on a label on the lashing.

    Lashing hooks also have LC. This tells you how much power the lashing hook has.

    5. Load securing

    5.4 Security methods (2/2)

    Different lashings

    There are many ways to lash cargo. None of them should be used as the only security method.

    Assault lashing

    With overrun lashing, you attach the lashing to the lashing hooks on one side of the loading platform, pull it over the load and down to the lashing hooks on the other side. The lashing goes over the load and pushes it down towards the plane. This increases the friction between the load and the surface, and the load therefore sits better. This is therefore a form of friction protection. As it is a friction lock, it is crucial that you achieve high friction with this locking method - i.e. that you achieve great pressure against the surface.

    This method is widely used, and preferably together with stamping. In the picture you see assault lashing in combination with stamping with pallets.

    Halter lashing

    Halter lashing can secure loads forwards and backwards, depending on which side you place the lashing. One halter can therefore only secure one way. But in the way it secures, it is very effective. Halter lashing secures the load by enclosing corners, or by holding back on the side of the load. There is separate equipment for halter lashing, which you can see in the picture.

    Halter lashing prevents the load from flying forwards or backwards during sudden braking or acceleration. It does not press the load against the ground. Therefore halter lashing is not friction protection.

    Halter lashing with normal lashing

    It is common to use a halter without special halter equipment. Then you only use normal lashing, similar to that used for assault lashing. In order for the securing to function as a halter lashing, you must then ensure that the lashing does not fall down. It must be held in place on the side of the goods, for example with a pallet.

    Loop lashing

    Loop lashing goes from the lashing hook and around the entire load, and back into the same lashing hook. It therefore goes around the load like a loop. It is very well suited for long loads. On one parcel, you must have at least four tensioning straps together to prevent the load from prying out and shifting forwards or backwards. Loop lashing works in pairs, with two lashings pulling the load from opposite sides. This holds the load firmly.

    If done correctly, it provides good protection against lateral displacement. It does not secure forwards and backwards, and it is not considered friction protection.

    Direct lashing

    With direct lashing, the lashing is attached directly to the load. The load must have a suitable attachment, and the attachment must be strong enough. Direct lashing is often used to secure containers or construction machinery to the loading platform.

    Fasten with a chain

    Loads that have a lot of sharp edges, an uneven surface or a high weight can be difficult to secure with fiber lashing. The fiber lashing quickly wears out and loses capacity. In such cases, a chain is often used.

    You can use chain in almost the same way as you use fiber tape, as long as it can be done. The same principles and the same lashing hooks are used.

    Chain quality

    There is a very variable tolerance on the chain. Bad chains have properties that are unfortunate for load securing: they are weakened by cold, and break instead of stretching when they are tightened too much. You must use alloy chain of at least Grade 80. These have high steel quality, and a certificate that guarantees the capacity.

    Tightening mechanism

    When securing with a chain, it is important that the chain is tight. Therefore, you must tighten it with a chain tensioner. With this, you can screw the chain shorter, so it sits better on the load. Both fiber tape and chain require re-tightening!

    Marking of chain

    There is a difference between a chain made for lifting and a chain made for lashing. When lashing loads with a chain, you must use a chain made for lashing. These have a square tag. If the chain is made for lifting, the tag is 8-, 10- or 12-sided.

    On the chain tag it says what the chain's LC is. LC is usually stated in daN or kN. It can also state which EN standard the chain is made according to - and the most common standard is EN 12195-3.

    Powerful protection

    Chain has a large securing capacity. In this picture you see a semi-trailer with double halter lashings and two assault lashings. Due to the large capacity, there are only four chains in total, and the securing is tidy and clear.

    Concrete elements secured with a double halter and two assault lashings.

    5. Load securing

    5.5 Things to watch out for when securing cargo (1/3)

    Things to watch out for when securing cargo

    In order for the load securing to be effective, there are a number of things that must be taken care of. Here we will look at:

    • Angles
    • Sharp edges
    • The strength of the fuse
    • Distribution of power
    • Worn equipment

    Angles on lashing

    For the securing to be effective, you must take care of the angles between plane and lashing. If you do not manage to lash within the angles stated here, you cannot count on the same capacity in the lashings.

    Assault lashing

    In the case of overrun lashing, the angle between the lashing and the plane should be between 75° and 90°. From 75° and below, the capacity of the lashing is reduced, and if the angle is below 30°, another method must be chosen.

    Angle to plumb line

    If the load is shaped so that the angles associated with the lashing are difficult to keep track of, the plumb line can be used as a starting point. The plumb line is the line that forms an angle of 90 degrees with the load plane. The angle between lashing and plumb line should not be more than 30°.

    The plumb line.

    Halter lashing

    When halter lashing, the angle between plane and lashing must not be more than 45°.

    Direct lashing

    With direct lashing, the angle between the lashing and the plane must be between 30° and 60°.

    Sharp edges

    When lashing, make sure that the lashing does not lie too hard on sharp edges. Then the fibers in the lashing may break, and the lashing may lose strength. To avoid such wear, spacers are used on the sharp edges of the load.

    Intermediates can be made from many strange things - for example, old tires or straw. There are also many people in the building and construction business who give away old fire hoses for free, which can be put to good use. Cardboard from the return container or old work gloves can also be fine.

    Rigid edge profile

    If you use a rigid edge profile as a spacer, it can also help to keep the load together, and to distribute the lashing force over several parcels. This will increase stability. Rigid edge profiles can be made of plastic, metal or wood.

    This spacer is stiff enough to increase the stability of these crates, and for each lashing to hold more than the one crate it is above.

    Chain

    A tight chain can damage or mark the load. If you place a spacer under the chain, the load from the chain is distributed more evenly. This saves the load.

    5. Load securing

    5.5 Things to watch out for when securing cargo (2/3)

    The strength of the lashing

    The properties of the load securing equipment are important to be aware of when securing loads. If the capacity of the equipment has not been taken into account, the entire load securing system may be worthless.

    Now we will look at some important values ​​related to load securing. Many of them come from lashing. If you know what these values ​​mean, you will better understand the connections and mechanisms in the fuse.

    Marking of lashing equipment

    Cargo securing equipment is usually marked according to Norwegian or European standards. The marking must tell how much weight the equipment can secure. Fiber straps that withstand more than 2000 daN, or 2000 kg, must be marked with the manufacturer, year of manufacture, material type and strength.

    Now we will look at three terms that say something about the strength of the lashing:

    • SHF
    • STF
    • LC

    SHF

    Fiber lashing must be equipped with a tensioning mechanism, which allows you to tighten the strap tightly over the load.

    These buckles have varying strengths. The strength of the buckle can be found on the lashing brand, such as SHF . SHF stands for Standard Hand Force, and it tells you how much weight you have to put on the buckle to tighten the lashing sufficiently.

    Most buckles have a SHF of 50 kg. This means that they are made so that you have to press with 50 kg of manual force on the buckle, in order for the strap to secure with the strength it is stated that it can secure. Most people manage to put 50 kg on the buckle - but if you can't, you can use an extension handle. These are made for exactly this purpose, and they make it much easier to tighten the band effectively. It may also be a good idea to use an extension handle if you want relief.

    STF

    STF stands for Standard Tension Force. STF stands next to SHF on the fiber band. That is because STF is the force you achieve by tightening with SHF - i.e. what is considered the tightening capacity of the lashing. It is mainly with assault lashing that you look at the STF when checking strength.

    Preload

    STF describes the lashing's ability to fasten something, i.e. press something down against the cargo plane. That is why it is often called pretension, or pressure force in Norwegian. STF is most important for friction protection, for example direct lashing.

    With friction lashing, the load is pressed down towards the plane, so that it becomes "heavier" - without gaining more mass and inertial forces. STF shows the power that the lashing has to push the load down. A lashing with STF of 300 daN will "increase" the weight of the load by 300 kg.

    Double STF

    An overrun lashing is a form of friction protection where the lashing goes over the load, and presses it down from both sides. Then the lashing gets double STF, since STF acts on both sides of the load. So, if you assault lash with a strap with STF 1000 daN, the lashing strap will act with a total STF of 2000 daN.

    LC

    LC stands for Lashing Capacity.

    In the case of overhead lashing, it is, as mentioned, important that the lashing is able to press the load down towards the plane. But with other lashings, this is not the point. The halter and loop must be tight, but they must not press the load down in the same way. Instead, they must retain the load when the forces of motion try to displace it.

    Bias is therefore not as important here - and when you have to assess the strength of the fuse, you look instead at LC. LC is often called load securing strength.

    Here you see two lashings: one extended, and one that has been placed over something.

    Double LC

    On the label of the lashing there is a picture of two lashings: one that is extended, and one that lies above the load - i.e. shaped like an inverted U. When extended, this lashing has an LC of 2500 daN. This is, for example, with direct lashing. Then it only holds the load from one point.

    However, when it is placed over the load and secured on each side, for example by halter lashing, it has double LC – 5000 daN. That is because it secures from two points. Assault lashing also does that, but with assault lashing we rather look at STF.

    The halter lashing holds the load from two sides - and LC is most important. Overhead lashing braces the load down towards the plane on two sides - and STF is most important.

    Distribution of power

    The assault lashing pulls the load down from both sides - it pushes the load down with twice the STF. However, for the fuse to be effective, the power must be evenly distributed. If the lashing cannot slide relatively unimpeded over the corners of the box, the weight distribution will be skewed: there will be a lot of pre-tension on the side where the buckle is, and little on the other side. In reality, you will then not get the STF that the bond says you can secure with.

    It is important to take care of this when buzzing. An intermediate can help here. It can help the lashing to slide unimpeded, thus contributing to the distribution of force.

    Due to the risk of uneven distribution of force, and because the load "settles" during transport, the securing must always be retightened after a few kilometres.

    5. Load securing

    5.5 Things to watch out for when securing cargo (3/3)

    Strength in lashing hook

    When lashing, you almost always rely on the lashing hooks on the loading platform. The strength of lashing hooks is usually stated in the LC, and is stated right on the plan or in the certificate. If the lashing hook has an LC of more than 2000 daN, you must have a certificate.

    Assault lashing

    When lashing, you must make sure that the LC of the hook is not lower than the STF of the lashing. If you attach several lashings to one hook, the total STF must not be more than the hook's LC.

    For example:

    You have lashing with STF of 750 daN, and hook with LC of 2000. How many such lashings can you attach to the hook?

    There is enough capacity for two lashings. 750 + 750 = 1500. If you take one more, it becomes 2250, and that is too much.

    Direct, loop and halter

    In the case of lashings that are not intended to buckle but retain the load, for example a halter or loop, you must ensure that the hook has at least as high an LC as the lashing.

    Exposed safety mechanisms

    When securing cargo, it is desirable that cargo and securing are as "collected" and compact as possible. You should also ensure that lashing hooks, stamping and other securing mechanisms are not exposed. If these mechanisms are damaged, the load securing can become completely worthless.

    The lashing ring should be fixed inside the vehicle. If they are attached outside, they are more vulnerable to external influences.

    Here are some of the lashings attached to the frame of the container. They should be fastened inside.

    Worn safety equipment

    If the load securing equipment is worn, it does not have the capacity stated on the label. The equipment quickly loses strength - after just one use, it has lost half of its strength. It is also difficult to know exactly what the capacity of used equipment is. Load securing equipment must therefore be used with caution, without taking any chances. Rather secure too much than too little!

    Fiber lashing must be discarded if:

    • the marking is so worn that it no longer provides information on endurance
    • there is a knot on it
    • the seams that attach the lashing to its attachment mechanism have begun to fray
    • the longitudinal fibers of the lashing are weakened. These are important for the protection capacity!
    • the lashing has been exposed to harmful chemicals, such as alkaline liquids. Powder or milky lashing surface can be a sign of chemicals

    Chain must be discarded if:

    • it is bent or twisted
    • has extended beyond what is approved by the manufacturer
    • has more than 10% freight wear. This means that the thickness has been reduced by more than 10%. The thickness is measured in the arc, i.e. where the chain rings are in contact with each other, using a caliper. This applies to both lifting and lashing chains
    • bolts are deformed. If necessary, individual bolts can be replaced

    Caliper

    Handy tool that can measure thickness.

    5. Load securing

    5.6 Example of load securing (1/3)

    Load securing step by step

    All load securing devices are different, and it is difficult to create a step-by-step guide that you can use every time. It all depends on the load, vehicle and available security.

    The load securing example we are now going to look at still has some steps that are fundamental and will be repeated in many load securing systems. These are:

    • Is the load easy to handle? Can I make it easier to handle?
    • Consider friction. How easily does the load slide?
    • Assess tipping hazard. How easily can the load tip?
    • What does the load weigh? How many kilograms does the law or good practice require that I insure for?
    • How can I most effectively and safely achieve this protection?
    • Is the equipment OK and is it attached correctly?

    Our cargo

    The load we are securing in this example consists of two identical crates. Each of them weighs 2,300 kg, and the weight is evenly distributed in the box. Each of the boxes is made of rough wood, and has the dimensions:

    • height 250 cm
    • length 150 cm
    • width 150 cm

    The underlay in the loading platform is an aluminum tear plate.

    This load is fairly straightforward. The boxes have an even weight distribution, are regular in shape and are not particularly fragile. They also have good friction against the surface. Two parcels are more difficult than one parcel - but as the parcels are identical it is not so difficult after all.

    Assembling packages

    The first thing we do is assess how the load is to be handled. Does something need to be bolted together? Does something need to be wrapped, or do we need plastic film?

    Our cargo is quite ready for shipping, but we can make it a little easier to secure by putting the boxes together. This can be done with a load-bearing edge profile, which is laid along the edge of both boxes. Overhead lashing will hold the edge profile in place. The edge profile can also act as a spacer, and protect the lashing against sharp corners. You can also put parcels together by lashing them together.

    Our combined package weighs 4,600 kg and has the following dimensions:

    • height 250 cm
    • length 300 cm
    • width 150 cm

    5. Load securing

    5.6 Example of cargo securing (2/3)

    How much weight should we secure?

    As we remember: we must secure for 0.8 times the weight forward, and 0.5 times the weight laterally. So 80 percent and 50 percent.

    Our two boxes are put together to form a package of 4,600 kg. This means that we must ensure:

    • Forward: 4600 x 0.8 = 3680 kg
    • To the side: 4600 x 0.5 = 2300 kg
    • Backwards: 4600 x 0.5 = 2300 kg

    What is the friction against the surface?

    When we are going to calculate how many safeguards we need to secure this weight, we need to know how easily the load slides on the surface - i.e. how the friction between the load and the surface is. Friction value is called my, and is written µ.

    The easiest way to find µ is to look in a friction table. Friction tables can be found in Best Practice, and they are probably found where you do the load securing.

    Our cargo is rough wood, and our cargo bed is tear board. Then we can look at sawn wood against grooved aluminum in the table - where the friction value is 0.4.

    5. Load securing

    5.6 Example of load securing (3/3)

    Lashing the load

    Now that we know the friction we can start securing. A good place to start is with assault lashing. We have 4-ton lashings, which are a fairly common lashing to use.

    Best practice has created tables where you can see how many lashings you need with different friction values. The table below shows 4-tonne lashing, which is a very common lashing.

    Security to the side and to the rear

    Here we must first find the correct friction value, which is 0.4. Then we can see that one lashing is enough to secure a load of 2900 kg sideways and backwards. Our load weighs 4,600, so we need 4,600 / 2,900 = 1.58 lashings, i.e. 2 lashings, to get good enough securing sideways and backwards.

    NB! As you remember, we really only need to secure 2300 kg laterally, since the requirement is only 0.5. This requirement is already baked into this table - so when we calculate the number of lashings we need, we still have to start with a load of 4,600.

    Security ahead

    Going forward, there are much stricter requirements for securing, so here we see that one assault lashing is only enough for a load of 630 kg. With the two lashings we use to secure sideways, we therefore have securing for 630 x 2 = 1260 kg load. Our load weighs 4600, so it's not enough.

    In order to avoid using so many assault lashings, we should find security that is better for securing forwards, for example halter lashing.

    Halter lashing

    To check how many halter lashings are needed, we must have a table for halter lashing.

    Here we can see that one halter is sufficient to secure a load of 7500 kg, with a friction value of 0.4. Since our load only weighs 4600 kg, we only need one halter lashing.

    The solution is therefore two assault lashings for securing sideways and backwards, and one halter lashing for securing forwards.

    NB! As you may see in the table for halter lashing, one halter lashing can secure a load of as much as 19,000 kg sideways and backwards. But when the halter lashing is placed so that it secures forward, it will not secure sideways or backwards. Therefore, one and the same halter lashing cannot secure several roads at the same time. Thus, we have to keep the two assault lashings as security to the side and to the rear.

    Buzz correctly

    We have therefore found a good solution, which ensures efficiency and good. However, for this solution to be effective, there are a number of things you must take care of:

    • The angle between the halter lashing and the loading platform must not exceed 45°.
    • The angle between the two lashing rings and the loading plane must be between 75° and 90°.
    • The lashing rings must be tight enough, and they must be re-tightened after some time.
    • The lashing hook to which the halter lashing is attached must have at least as high an LC as the halter lashing
    • The lashing hooks the lashing lashing is attached to must have an LC at least as high as the STF of the lashing lashing.
    • All lashings must be adequately protected against the sharp edges of the box. The edge profile is perfectly fine as an intermediate layer for the lashings if it is soft enough. If it is not, another solution must be found. The spacer does not cover all the edges on which the halter rests, so extra spacers are needed here.

    5. Load securing

    5.8 Practice task

    Practice task

    You will be transporting a square box made of rough wood. The box weighs 3 tonnes, and the weight is evenly distributed in the box. You must secure it with 4 tonne lashing.

    Look at the tables and answer the questions.

    Questions

  • If the underlay in the lorry is grooved aluminium, how many crash lashings do you need to ensure full safety going forward?
  • Does this solution provide good enough lateral and rearward protection?
  • On a surface of veneer, how many storm lashings do you need to ensure full safety going forward?
  • You place the box on a Europallet, and load it onto a truck with a stainless steel plate underlay. What is the friction value you should use as a starting point when calculating the number of lashings?
  • And with this combination, how many assault lashings do you need for full protection in all directions?
  • And is this solution good?
  • Conclusion

  • 5 lashings. µ between grooved aluminum and the case of sawn pallets/wooden planks is 0.4. With µ 0.4, you need 3000 / 630 = 4.76, i.e. 5 lashings.
  • Yes. Laterally and backwards, there is only a need for 3000 / 2900 = 1.03, i.e. 2 lashings.
  • 4 lashings. The friction is 0.45. 3000 / 810 = 3.7. So 4 lashings.
  • µ 0.3. If you place the load on a pallet, you must examine the friction value between plane and pallet, and pallet and load. You must ensure the lowest friction value. µ between stainless steel plate and wooden pallet is 0.3. Between wooden pallet and wood, µ is 0.45. We ensure for the lowest – µ 0.3.
  • 8 lashings. With µ 0.3, we need 3000 / 380 = 7.89, i.e. 8 lashings. Backwards and sideways we only need 3000 / 1100 = 2.72, i.e. 3 lashings. 8 lashings are therefore enough.
  • Well. As long as you have enough lashing hooks, and as long as you never exceed the LC on the lashing, it's an ok solution - at least it's safe. However, the protection can be made more rational. For example, you could probably drop part of the assault lashings if you had used a halter lashing or stamping, which is particularly suitable for securing forwards.
  • 6. Load carriers and freight transport

    6.0 Introduction

    Chapter 6: Load carriers and freight transport

    There are many different load carriers for a truck, adapted to different types of goods and work. If you want to have a class C driving licence, you need to know a little about the most common load carriers.

    In this chapter we will look at:

    • 6.1 Tips
    • 6.2 Crane
    • 6.3 Lifting member
    • 6.4 Dangerous goods
    • 6.5 Rules for length and width, labeling and dispensation
    • 6.6 Requirements for training
    • 6.7 Control tasks

    6. Load carriers and freight transport

    6.1 Tips

    Hint

    Trucks that are used for the transport of various masses often have a tipping load plan so that the load can be easily tipped out. The loading platform itself is most often operated from levers in the cab, but there are also loading platforms that are controlled by remote control. The loading platform is raised and lowered using hydraulics.

    What do you need to be aware of when betting?

    • The danger of overturning – There is a greater risk of overturning when tipping. The danger is greatest when the load is tipped backwards - then the center of gravity in the vehicle can become very high. If you feel during tipping that the car is starting to overturn or tilt, you must stop tipping and lower the loading platform immediately. Before trying again, the car must be moved so that it is more stable.
    • The axles - Check that all lowerable axles are lowered and that the car stands firmly on safe ground.
    • Overview - Get an overview. Make sure you have control over where you tip the load. You must make sure that there are no people near the car.
    • Obstacles – Check that there are no electrical wires or other obstructions above the car.
    • Load is stuck - Check that the load flows out evenly. When tipping clay and similar mass, it is quickly done that the mass hangs, before it suddenly releases. This can create unforeseen forces. If the mass only hangs on one side of the plane, the vehicle may tilt sideways and overturn. You may also experience uneven emptying of cargo if the cargo has stuck or frozen in some places.
    • Abort – If the car starts to overturn/tilt when tipping, you must abort and lower the cargo box as quickly as possible.

    Safety equipment for tipping

    To prevent the loading platform from being lifted too high, falling down or the hydraulics being overloaded, tipper trucks are equipped with several different safety mechanisms.

    Tipping support

    The tip support must ensure that the tip does not fall down. This is an important function when repairing or carrying out maintenance between the loading platform and the frame. The tip support must always be put on when you are under the tip - you should not rely on the hydraulic system alone. If the hydraulics fail, people get trapped.

    The tipping support is designed to withstand the weight of the loading platform. If you have cargo in the loading platform, you must not move under it at all.

    Safety wire

    To prevent the loading platform from being lifted too high, a wire is fitted to hold it down.

    Lock bolts

    Many tips are designed to be able to tip the load both backwards and to the sides - depending on what is appropriate.

    Which way the load is tipped is controlled by the locking bolts: if you lock the rear, only the front will be raised, and then the load is tipped backwards. If you lock one of the sides, the load will be tipped to the other side.

    Locking bolts are located at the rear.

    6. Load carriers and freight transport

    6.2 Crane

    Crane

    To use a crane with a lifting torque of more than 2 tonne metres, you must have your own crane driver's licence.

    If you are going to use a crane that does not require a crane driver's licence, your employer is nevertheless obliged to provide you with the necessary training. Using a crane always requires approved lifting equipment and the right protective equipment (helmet, safety shoes, etc.).

    You can drive a car with a permanently mounted crane, even if you are not entitled to use it. But then it must be secured.

    Ton meters

    Tonnes is the length of the crane's arm in metres, multiplied by the lifting capacity in tonnes. A crane with a 20 meter arm and a capacity of 6 tonnes has tonne meters of 20 x 6 = 120.

    Safety when using a crane

    All cranes mounted on trucks or truck trailers must have a load table showing how much weight the crane can withstand. Based on the load table, you can see how heavy a load you can have and how many meters the crane can be driven with a load.

    What must you be aware of when using a crane?

    • Be careful with live wires.
    • Try to keep - and carry - the load as low as possible.
    • When you have finished using the crane, it must be locked in the parking position - if the crane arm moves while you are driving, it can cause dangerous accidents.
    • Use lifting equipment (chain, wire rope, webbing straps, etc.) that is approved for the weight.
    • If a truck crane is used in a public place, the area must be secured.
    • Use support legs and make sure they stand on stable ground. The support legs must be adjusted over time if the weight of the vehicle changes.

    6. Load carriers and freight transport

    6.3 Lifting member

    Lift member

    A lifting member, also called a rear lift, is a member behind the truck. The limb can be lowered to ground level, so that you can drive goods on with a jack trolley, raise the limb and drive it into the load compartment. Some lifting members can be lowered at an angle, so that it becomes a ramp for animals or vehicles.

    Operation of the lifting member

    The lifting limb must be operable from a fixed control panel, but you can also have a remote control. Together with the fixed control panel, there must be a fixed instruction manual and load diagram showing how much load the lifting limb can withstand. The instruction manual tells you how much space you must have behind the car to be able to lower the lifting limb. This must be taken into account when parking.

    Cab switch

    All cars with a lifting member must have a cab switch. When the switch is off, it is not possible to control the lifting limb from the buttons at the back, or from the remote control. The switch must always be off while driving.

    The cab switch is also called the control current switch, or main switch.

    The lifting member must be checked according to the manufacturer's instructions and serviced when required. The lifting member must be checked by a specialist every 12 months.

    Training!

    Everyone who uses a lifting member must be trained in how to use it. This is important - many injuries occur when using a lifting member.

    Safety

    Unfortunately, a number of work accidents occur as a result of unreasonable use of a lifting member. Crush injuries are common.

    • The load must be supported by itself. You should not need to support it with your body, arms or legs.
    • Do not load the lifting limb with more than it is designed for.
    • Keep all your fingers on the control panel - then you are sure that you will not get your fingers pinched between the limb and the loading platform/cabinet.
    • Keep unauthorized persons at a distance. Pay special attention to children. Before using the lifting member, the operator must check that there are no people, cars or other obstacles in the working area of ​​the lifting member. Several accidents occur because the operator starts operating the lifting member before these things have been checked.
    • Also consider that a limb that is left standing horizontally from the loading platform can be a danger to drivers/pedestrians

    6. Load carriers and freight transport

    6.4 Dangerous goods

    Transport of dangerous goods

    Everyone in the transport chain who unloads, loads, temporarily stores or transports dangerous goods must at least have documented training that deals with the goods they are to handle. Those who transport dangerous goods must have an ADR course that has been approved by the Norwegian Directorate for Public Safety and Emergency Preparedness, DSB.

    1000 points

    When shipping ADR goods, a points system is used. The substances have points according to how dangerous they are, and when shipping, all the points are added together. This way you get a score that applies to the entire shipment with all goods, which says something about how dangerous the shipment is. You can transport up to 1,000 points of dangerous goods without a certificate of competence, as long as you follow the requirements in chapter 1.1.3.6. in the ADR book. Here you can also read how many points the different substances have.

    Truck carrying dangerous goods.

    The ADR book

    This book contains regulations on land transport of dangerous goods. The regulations are published in book form, and are an important resource within ADR. You can find it for free on the internet, as a PDF.

    Shipping without certificate of competence

    You can transport dangerous goods without a certificate of competence, if the goods are covered by the exemption provisions. There are three different provisions that are particularly discussed: quantities according to 1.1.3.6, limited quantities and exempt quantities.

    1.1.3.6

    1.1.3.6 is a chapter in the ADR book, with a table showing special quantities of ADR that can be transported without the full ADR regulations coming into force. The goods cannot exceed 1,000 ADR points. For transport in accordance with 1.1.3.6, you are exempted from some of the ADR provisions:

    • You do not need an ADR certificate of competence
    • The only thing you need from ADR equipment is a two-kilogram fire extinguisher
    • You do not need to mark the vehicle
    • You do not need a transport accident card (but you must have a transport document)
    • You can bring passengers

    Limited quantities

    Limited quantities are goods packed in medium quantities, of 1–5 kg or litres. There is no limit to the number of parcels, but they must be packed and labeled according to ADR requirements. If they are, they are considered ordinary general cargo that is not subject to the ADR provisions.

    When transporting more than 8 tonnes, the vehicle or container must be marked with a danger label on the right-hand side.

    Labeling of limited quantities

    Excepted quantities

    Exempted quantities are dangerous goods that are packed in very small quantities, between 1 and 30 grams or milliliters. You can transport a maximum of 1,000 parcels per vehicle or container. In that case, the transport is not subject to the ADR regulations, but is considered normal general cargo.

    Excepted quantities

    Other exceptions!

    There are several minor exceptions to ADR that are not mentioned here.

    But if you are to transport ADR according to exemption provisions, the waybill must state why the load is exempt, and where in the ADR book the exemption is described. It is the sender who is responsible for the cargo being packaged and documented in accordance with the ADR regulations. As a driver, you must be able to trust the information you are given by the sender.

    ADR certificate of competence

    In order to be allowed to transport dangerous goods beyond the exemption provisions, you must have an ADR certificate of competence. You get a certificate of competence by taking a basic course in ADR.

    Requirements for marking vehicles

    Vehicles that are to transport dangerous goods must be marked. The labeling is standardized and international, and shows what is being transported.

    Orange sign

    If you are transporting dangerous goods, you must use orange signs at the front and rear of the vehicle. This informs other road users that dangerous goods are being transported.

    Bulk and tank vehicles with dangerous goods must have orange signs with numbers, which show which substance and which hazard the cargo contains. The numbers are used internationally, and the meaning is stated in the ADR book.

    The top number is the hazard number, and the bottom is a UN number. UN stands for United Nation, and the number shows which substance is being transported. This number is also called the item number.

    Danger sheets

    Tanker trucks, bulk trucks and trucks with explosive or radioactive material must have hazard labels showing which hazardous material they are loaded with. Vehicles must be marked on both sides and at the back, and containers and trailers going by train or boat must be marked on all four sides.

    The hazard labels have different color codes, which say what is dangerous about the substance. Some of them also have numbers and letter codes. For example, flammable gas has a red note with the number 2, and flammable liquid has a red note with the number 3.

    6. Load carriers and freight transport

    6.5 Rules for length and width, labeling and dispensation

    Dispensation

    Sometimes you have to transport cargo that breaks the restrictions in the road list. In these cases, you need special permission, a so-called dispensation.

    Simply put, you need a dispensation if you are going to weigh more or be larger than what is allowed by the road lists, for example longer than the length restrictions in table 4 or heavier than the restrictions in the axle load table and vehicle weight table.

    Rules for labeling and dispensation

    You only need a waiver if the size or weight of your load is not permitted. You need labeling on both permitted and non-permitted cargo.

    Here are some of the most important rules:

    • Loads that protrude in front must be marked with a cylinder with white and red stripes. If the load protrudes more than 1 metre, you must have a dispensation.
    • Loads that extend 15 cm or more outside the sides of the vehicle must be marked. The marking must have red and yellow stripes, front and back and on both sides of the goods.
    • Loads that protrude more than 1 meter behind the vehicle must be marked. The marking must be red and white.
    • Permitted width on Norwegian roads is 2.55 metres. Trucks with extra thick walls, such as thermal transport, can be 2.60 metres. If a vehicle with a load is wider than 2.6, it must have flashing yellow lights, and you must have a dispensation.
    • The one-package rule: when transporting indivisible goods, you can be up to 3.25 meters wide without exemption.
    • If the vehicle and load are over 3 meters wide, you must have a companion car, and both cars must have a WIDE LOAD sign.
    • In the event of poor visibility, there are extra strict requirements for marking. You must then mark the load with a light.

    Drive with dispensation

    Even if you have an exemption, you must stay within other regulations:

    • You cannot break the weight restrictions stated in the vehicle license.
    • You must ensure that at least 20% of the current total weight rests on the steering wheels.
    • The driver must be able to maneuver the vehicle in a safe manner.
    • The load must not drag or pose a danger.
    • The driver must have adequate visibility.

    Indivisible goods

    Indivisible goods are large units of goods which cannot be divided, or which it is not appropriate to divide, and which must therefore be transported as a large whole.

    Release dispensation

    If you are to transport indivisible goods, you do not have to apply for a dispensation, even if the goods go beyond the borders on Norwegian roads. This exemption is called the one-package rule. It states that you can transport large, indivisible goods with vehicles that are within the limitations stated in the tables for indivisible goods, in regulations on the use of vehicles.

    Hook lift plane and container

    A truck can transport containers of different lengths. You must always stay within the length limit for the vehicle.

    Maximum distance from the underpass obstacle

    In addition, the distance from the rearmost point of the container or the rearmost point of the hooklift plane to the underpass on the lorry must not be more than 40 cm.

    This is to ensure that a car that collides into the truck behind is stopped by the underpass barrier, instead of ending up completely under the plane. If it ends up completely below the plane, it is split in two - and thus a total wreck.

    Here, the distance is too long, so this car would be banned from driving.

    6. Load carriers and freight transport

    6.6 Requirements for training

    Training

    To use a crane, truck, lifting member and similar machines, you must be at least 18 years old, and physically and mentally fit to use the equipment.

    Certificate of competence and training

    Some machines, such as large cranes, you must have a certificate of competence to use. To get it, you have to attend a certified course. But regardless of whether a machine requires a certificate of competence or not, you are entitled to training from your employer. Machines can be dangerous if used incorrectly.

    You must also have access to safety equipment such as a helmet and safety shoes, and training in how to use safety equipment correctly.

    7. Legislation and fees

    7.0 Introduction

    Chapter 7: Legislation and fees

    As a heavy vehicle driver on Norwegian roads, there are many laws and regulations that you must know and stay within.

    In this chapter we will look at:

    • 7.1 The driver's license
    • 7.2 Duties
    • 7.3 Signs
    • 7.4 Liability for vehicle and cargo
    • 7.5 Fees, license and insurance
    • 7.6 Public reactions
    • 7.7 Control tasks

    7. Legislation and fees

    7.1 The driver's license

    Right to drive a truck

    To drive a lorry, you must have a class C driving licence. This entitles you to drive:

    • Motor vehicle with a permissible total weight of over 3,500 kg and which is approved for the transport of a maximum of 8 passengers in addition to the driver.
    • Wagon train consisting of a motor vehicle covered by the point above and a trailer with a permissible total weight of no more than 750 kg. If you extend your driver's license to CE, there is no limit to how heavy the trailer can be.
    • In Norway, the right to drive also includes driving a tractor and motor equipment in general, possibly with a trailer when the vehicle's design speed is no more than 40 km/h.

    Who can get a driving license class C?

    To get a class C driver's license you must be 21 years old, or have completed or started approved professional driver training.

    You must also be in sufficiently good health: you must have good enough eyesight, good enough hearing and agility, and you cannot have drug problems or behavioral disorders. A health certificate is supplied with the driver's license application.

    Professional driver!

    Driving license class C does not entitle you to work as a heavy vehicle driver. Then you must qualify as a professional driver first.

    Constructive speed

    The highest speed the vehicle is designed to travel.

    The validity of the driver's license

    The driving license is valid for 5 years. The validity may be shorter, if:

    • it is necessary due to health reasons.
    • you have not documented having completed smooth driving courses or track safety courses when you get your driver's licence. The validity is then set to one year. If you submit documentation of completed courses afterwards, you can get validity for 5 years.
    • you are between 66 and 71 years old. In that case, the validity is set anyway to the day before you turn 71. From the age of 71 and above, the driver's license is valid for one year.

    The driving license must be renewed before the validity period is over - otherwise you will be without a driving licence. When renewing, you must deliver a health certificate to the traffic station. If it has been more than a year since your driving license expired, you must take a new driving license.

    7. Legislation and fees

    7.2 Duties

    § 3 Basic rules for traffic

    Section 3 of the Road Traffic Act is called basic rules for traffic. This is a completely general rule, which applies to everyone who travels where there is traffic. Many people are punished for violating this section. It is like this:

    Everyone must travel with consideration and be alert and careful so that no danger can arise or damage be caused and so that other traffic is not unnecessarily obstructed or disturbed.

    Road users must also show consideration for those who live or stay by the road.

    Attentive, considerate and careful

    The point of the law is that you must be alert, considerate and careful when you are in traffic.

    Alertness means that you are aware and prepared, so that you can react quickly to sudden events. Considerate means that you must show consideration for other road users, regardless of the obligation to give way and other traffic rules. Careful means that you should be careful and drive safely.

    You must be fit to drive

    The Road Traffic Act states:

    No one must drive or attempt to drive a vehicle when he is in such a state that he cannot be considered fit to drive safely, whether this is due to his being under the influence of alcohol or other intoxicating or narcotic substances, or that he is ill, weakened, tired or fatigued, or due to other circumstances.

    The condition

    This law states that you must be fit to drive. That means you have to be in good shape. You can't be intoxicated, or so tired or sick that you can't keep up.

    Intoxication

    The Road Traffic Act stipulates that the driver of a motor vehicle cannot be under the influence of alcohol or other drugs.

    You must also abstain from alcohol 6 hours after you have parked the truck, if you have been involved in an accident or if you have reason to believe that the drive may be investigated by the authorities.

    Obligatory abstinence

    The Road Traffic Act also has separate provisions for professional drivers and intoxication. They decide that you do not enjoy alcohol during duty hours, or in the last 8 hours before duty hours. Duty time is the time you are at work - i.e. the time when you drive or may be asked to drive or do other work.

    Refrain from alcohol

    • 8 hours before driving
    • 6 hours after driving you think needs to be investigated.

    Seat belt

    Regulations on the use of seat belts state that you must wear a seat belt if the vehicle has a seat belt. You are also responsible for ensuring that children under the age of 15 wear a seat belt. You can be penalized for dropping your seat belt.

    Belt requirements do not apply to work tools such as tractors and construction machinery.

    You do not need to wear a seat belt if:

    • the vehicle is stationary
    • you back off
    • you drive at low speed and have to leave the vehicle frequently
    • you drive in a garage, car park, petrol station or other limited space
    • you have a doctor's certificate stating that you cannot wear a seat belt
    • you are a companion in practice driving, and cannot reach the steering wheel if you are wearing your seat belt. Applies to classes C, C1, D, D1, CE, C1E, DE and D1E

    Duties in the event of an accident

    The Road Traffic Act stipulates that you have duties in the event of a traffic accident:

    Anyone who, with or without fault, is involved in a traffic accident must immediately stop and help injured persons and animals, and otherwise participate in the measures that give rise to the accident.

    This duty also has, if necessary, others who are nearby or who come to the place.

    You have a duty to help

    You must help people and animals who have been in an accident, or who need help. If you fail to help, you could lose your driver's license forever.

    Furthermore, the law requires that you stay at the scene of the accident until you get the police's permission to leave, and that you help ensure that technical traces are not removed. You are also obliged to identify yourself to the police on site.

    Professional driver!

    Professional drivers have a special duty to help.

    Special speed regulations

    The Road Traffic Act stipulates that some vehicles have their own speed limits:

    Motor vehicles with a permissible total weight of over 3,500 kg cannot drive faster than 80 km/h. A motor vehicle with a trailer cannot drive faster than 80 km/h.

    So even if the speed limit on the spot is more than 80 km/h, you cannot drive faster than 80 km/h with such vehicles. If the speed limit is lower than 80 km/h, you cannot of course drive at 80 km/h.

    7. Legislation and fees

    7.3 Signs (1/3)

    Divorced

    You know most of the signs from the training in class B. But now that you will be driving a truck, there are several signs that will become relevant to you, which were not so important before. Here we will go through these.

    Prohibition sign: weight

    Total weight limit for vehicles

    The vehicle cannot have a current total weight that is higher than the weight indicated on the sign. If you have a wagon train, each of the vehicles in the wagon train can weigh the specified amount.

    Total weight limit for truck trains

    The wagon train cannot have a total current total weight that is higher than the weight indicated on the sign. This sign therefore does not refer to the individual vehicles as in the sign above, but to the total weight of the entire train. Nor can you have a single vehicle that is heavier than the weight indicated in the picture.

    Axle load limit

    Prohibited with an axle load higher than 3 tonnes. If you have a bogie, you must multiply by 1.5 to find the permissible axle load: 3 x 1.5 = 4.5 tonnes maximum permissible axle load.

    If you have a triple bogie, you must multiply by 2. That is 3 x 2 = 6 tonnes permitted axle load.

    Bogie load limit

    Vehicles with a current bogie load above the specified weight cannot drive on roads where this sign is displayed.

    Prohibited for motor vehicles with more than two wheels and with a permissible total weight higher than specified

    If the road or lane has this sign, it is forbidden to drive a motor vehicle with a permissible total weight of more than 3.5 tonnes. Trucks are therefore prohibited.

    Prohibition sign: size

    Width limit

    Vehicles cannot be wider than specified. The same applies to any goods in the vehicle.

    Height limit

    Vehicles with goods cannot be higher than specified.

    The sign indicates the height limit for the vehicle, not the height of the tunnel.

    Length limit

    Vehicles or wagon trains may not be longer than indicated. This also applies to any goods.

    Prohibition signs: rules for certain vehicles

    Prohibited for trucks and tractors

    Trucks and tractors are not allowed to drive on roads where this sign is displayed.

    Prohibited for the transport of dangerous goods

    Transport marked with orange signs due to dangerous goods cannot drive on roads where this sign is displayed.

    Overtaking ban truck

    A lorry with a permissible total weight of over 3,500 kg cannot overtake a motor vehicle with more than two wheels.

    End of truck overtaking ban

    The overtaking ban as described above has ended.

    Prohibition sign: stop

    Stop for stated purpose

    The sign requires you to stop for what is indicated on the sign. In this example, the driver must stop for a check.

    Stop for customs

    The vehicle must stop for customs clearance or for applicable customs regulations.

    7. Legislation and fees

    7.3 Signs (2/3)

    Road sign

    Detour route for large vehicles

    This sign is used where large vehicles cannot use the public road.

    Route for the transport of dangerous goods

    This sign shows a separate route for the transport of dangerous goods.

    Other detour routes

    In the picture you see six different signs, all of which are called other detour routes. These are used when one place has many detours to different destinations, for example during major road works. At the start of the detours, you will be told which signs lead where.

    Detour for specific vehicle groups

    The sign shows a detour for cars taller than 3.5 metres.

    Temporary detour

    This sign shows the same as the one above, but this is used where the detour is only temporary.

    End of temporary detour

    End of temporary detour.

    7. Legislation and fees

    7.3 Signs (3/3)

    Undersigned

    Sub-signs stand below other signs. They show different things.

    Van, lorry and tow truck

    When this sub-sign is under a sign, it means that the sign applies to vans, lorries and tow trucks. This sub-sign can be found, among other things, under the signs parking permitted and parking prohibited.

    Trailer

    The sign is the same as the one above, but it shows that a sign applies to wagon trains.

    Truck

    Vehicles with a permissible total weight of over 3,500 kg. Lorry is driver's license class C.

    Trucks with a permissible total weight of up to 7,500 kg are called light trucks.

    Tow truck

    Also called a tractor. A tow truck is a short truck designed to pull a semi-trailer. They are therefore not designed to carry cargo onto the plane, as normal trucks are.

    Sub-sign for danger sign

    Degree of ascent

    This sign is below the danger sign that warns of a steep hill, and shows that the hill has a 10% gradient.

    Degree of ascent

    This sign warns of a steep hill, and encourages you to have a low gear. Heavy vehicles should brake on the gear on downhill slopes, so they don't wear out the brakes. If the load is too great over time, they can fail.

    Truly free road width

    The sign is usually put up where the road is narrower than it looks, or narrower than what is standard. The sign also refers to the fact that the movement space above the road is narrow, for example due to a rock face.

    Brake on the gear

    If you put the vehicle in low gear, the speed decreases. This is how you can brake without using the brakes. This is a good idea - because heavy vehicles are very heavy, the brakes can be damaged if they are used too much and for too long. On long downhill slopes, heavy vehicles should brake on the gear.

    7. Legislation and fees

    7.4 Liability for vehicle and load

    Decent and regulatory condition

    The Road Traffic Act stipulates that the vehicle must be safe and in regulatory condition.

    Regulatory condition means that the vehicle is in good technical condition. That is, that everything works and is as it should be. Good condition means that the vehicle and load are safe to drive.

    There is a difference between safe and legal: a lorry with a broken headlight is not in legal order, but it can still be safe to drive - if it is daytime and there are good light conditions where you will be driving. The driver must assess whether the vehicle is in a safe condition - and if it is not, it is forbidden to drive.

    Driver's and owner's responsibility

    The owner is responsible for ensuring that the vehicle is in safe and legal condition. But when the vehicle is handed over to the driver, it is the driver who is responsible.

    Fee for nuisance

    The authorities can charge a fee for overloading on single axles and total weight. The fee increases with the number of kg of excess weight, and it becomes even higher if the vehicle has been taken with excess weight before. It is the owner who must pay the fee.

    If someone other than the owner has taken over the right to use the vehicle, for example via leasing, it is the person with the right to use the vehicle who must pay the fee. This is often called the carrier.

    When shipping sealed or locked containers with overload, the sender may be liable for the fee.

    If the overload is dangerous, the driver can be fined for reckless driving. If it is particularly serious, the driver may lose his driving licence.

    Prohibition on the use of vehicles

    The Road Traffic Act states that the police can prohibit the use of a vehicle, if necessary. There are many possible reasons for a ban, and some of them are:

    • The motor vehicle is not registered
    • The motor vehicle is refused to be handed over for inspection
    • The vehicle is not in good condition and the load is not properly secured
    • The vehicle's wheels do not have sufficient traction
    • The vehicle has not been weighed in accordance with the requirements of the authorities, or if the charge for overloading has not been paid
    • Safety or environmental changes have been made to the vehicle by a non-approved workshop
    • Rules for axle load, total weight or the placement of loads have been broken
    • The vehicle has been driven irresponsibly
    • The rules for driving and rest time have not been observed

    How long the ban lasts varies from case to case. The ban applies to the use of a particular vehicle, not the confiscation of a driver's licence.

    This car will be banned from driving, because this is not safe.

    7. Legislation and fees

    7.5 Fees, license and insurance (1/2)

    Charges

    Taxes on vehicles are part of Norway's tax and excise system. Many of the expenses related to heavy vehicles are taxes.

    • Annual fee is paid twice a year. How much you have to pay depends on weight, number of axles and suspension system.
    • Environmentally differentiated tax applies to diesel-powered vehicles with a weight of 7,500 kg and above. The fee is adjusted according to the exhaust gas requirement level.
    • The fuel taxes are paid through the purchase of fuel, as an addition to the price. The fees must help cover costs related to pollution.

    Reduced tax base

    If you mainly drive on roads with a low permissible total weight, or often have light goods, it may be worthwhile to reduce the permissible total weight of the vehicle. This is done through technical interventions, and the change is documented in the vehicle registration card. A car with a low permissible total weight has a lower tax base. If you make the change, you must of course always limit yourself to the new weight.

    Lion

    Almost all permanent transport activities that are carried out for consideration, i.e. against payment, require a licence. To transport goods by truck, you need a goods permit. To get this you must have:

    • relevant professional qualifications
    • good enough finances to run the business responsibly
    • good conduct

    Each license applies to one vehicle, and the license states the vehicle's registration number. The license must be kept in the vehicle, and must be presented at the inspection. The permit issued for goods transport is a so-called community permit, which is valid throughout the EU and the EEA.

    7. Legislation and fees

    7.5 Fees, license and insurance (2/2)

    Insurance

    Insurance is a large part of the expenses when driving a heavy vehicle, and there are many different types of insurance for vehicles and transport. You must ensure that you always operate within the area covered by the insurance.

    Liability insurance and comprehensive insurance

    The Motor Liability Act requires that anyone injured by a motor vehicle must receive compensation, regardless of fault.

    Liability insurance, or traffic insurance as it is also called, must ensure this. All cars with registration plates must have liability insurance. Your liability insurance covers damage to other road users and vehicles, if you are to blame for the accident. It also covers you as the driver and any passengers. Liability insurance does not cover damage to your own vehicle.

    Full comprehensive and partial comprehensive insurance covers damage to your own vehicle regardless of fault, but this insurance is voluntary. Partial comprehensive insurance covers, among other things, fire and theft, damage to buildings and property, and roadside assistance.

    Full comprehensive insurance covers everything covered by partial comprehensive insurance, in addition to collision, downhill and overturning.

    Cargo liability insurance and carrier insurance

    The load in the truck also has value - and should be insured.

    Property liability insurance

    As the carrier is responsible for the goods during transport, the carrier should have cargo liability insurance to protect against large financial claims. The cargo liability insurance for the freight forwarder does not cover damage to the goods due to drunkenness, lack of maintenance, overloading or downtime.

    Carrier insurance

    If the carrier does not have cargo liability insurance, and something should happen during transport, the cargo owner may be liable for compensation. To insure against such liability, the goods owner can take out carrier insurance. The goods owner should also insure the goods, even when the carrier has goods liability insurance.

    Additional insurances

    There is a lot of lorry business that requires additional insurance. If you are to drive outside the Nordic countries, you must have a so-called green card, which is an addition to the insurance that makes it valid for international transport. You need this because driving outside the Nordic region increases the risk for vehicles and cargo. If you are going to plow snow, you must have a supplement for snow plowing in your insurance. The same applies to the transport of dangerous goods.

    Documentation in the event of a stop and collision

    In order for responsibility to be distributed correctly in the event of a stop or collision, it is important to have documentation. The insurance companies need it to process the case.

    Damage report form

    In the event of a collision, you should write down the names and addresses of people who may have seen the accident, and take photographs with your mobile phone. You should photograph the surroundings and other things that can help in determining questions of guilt. In addition, you must fill in a damage report form. On the claim form, you can draw the accident situation and write down what happened. You get a claim form as part of the insurance papers, and it should always be in the car. You should also have the telephone number for roadside assistance and car towing available. Most insurance companies cover this and offer a separate telephone number.

    In the event of a collision or standstill, you should also call the transport company you are driving for. They can provide information about routines, contact an emergency vehicle and possibly send a new lorry to the goods.

    7. Legislation and fees

    7.6 Public reactions

    Public reactions

    If you break the law or commit minor offences, you may get reactions from the authorities. Here we will look at:

    • Fine
    • Simplified presentation
    • Fee
    • Blocking period
    • Loss of driver's license

    Penalty and simplified notice

    A fine is considered a punishment from the authorities. It is often used together with a prison sentence, and you are entitled to a trial before you are fined.

    If you are caught at a speed check or similar, the police may ask if you accept a simplified summons. This means that you accept a fine without trial, and that you and the authorities make up then and there. You get the fine on a bill, and you can drive on.

    If you do not agree, the case will be taken up in the judiciary, and it will be treated like other criminal cases. The vast majority accept a simplified submission.

    It is common to offer a simplified sentence in minor cases, such as running a red light, illegal overtaking or speeding.

    Fee

    A fee is not a penalty. The fee you pay must in principle cover an expense you incur in one way or another.

    It is common to receive a fee for minor matters, such as incorrect parking. You can also be charged for nuisance. If you don't pay the fee, the fee will be larger, and eventually the authorities can take a lien on your vehicle.

    Fee for incorrect parking.

    Blocking period

    A suspension period is when the authorities refuse you to get a driving licence. If you drive a lorry without a class C driver's license, you can get a suspension period for a class C driver's license. This means that you cannot get a class C driver's license until the suspension period is over.

    You can also get a suspension period in connection with the loss of your driving licence. Then you cannot get a new driver's license before the suspension period is over.

    If you are caught for speeding with a motor vehicle in which you do not have a driver's license, and the speeding would have led to the confiscation of your driver's license if you had had a driver's license, then the suspension period will be at least as long as the driver's license had been revoked.

    Loss of driver's license

    Loss of driving license usually occurs in connection with a court case and sentence, for more serious violations. If you lose your driving licence, you cannot drive any vehicle requiring a driving licence.

    If you are caught twice in five years for exceeding the limit, which gives rise to the suspension of your driving licence, you can lose your driving license forever. You must also lose your driving license forever if you fail to help in a traffic accident for which you are at fault.

    If you refuse a breathalyzer test or a blood test on suspicion of drink-driving, you can lose your driving license for two years. If you are punished for drink-driving, you lose it for one year.

    Truck driver without a driver's license?

    If you work as a lorry driver, it is quite stupid to lose your driving licence. If it is your own fault that you have lost it, for example because you have drunk driving, there is a high chance that your employer will dismiss you. If you are self-employed, you can lose a lot of income if you do not have a driver's license - and if the confiscation is self-inflicted, it is not certain that you will get anything back on the insurance.

    If you are very lucky, your employer will put you to other work until your driving license is back.

    8. Driving and rest time

    8.0 Introduction

    Chapter 8: Driving and rest time

    Lorries often carry large amounts of value, and accidents involving heavy vehicles can have serious consequences. You risk both life and large financial values ​​if you are not careful. The driving and rest time regulations ensure that drivers have free time and rest.

    In this chapter we will go through:

    • 8.1 Regulation of working hours
    • 8.2 Driving time, working time and rest time
    • 8.3 Daily rest and weekly rest
    • 8.4 Tachograph
    • 8.5 Example of driving and rest time calculation
    • 8.6 Control tasks

    8. Driving and rest time

    8.1 Regulation of working hours

    Regulation of working hours

    The driving and rest time provisions apply to all goods transport by road where the total permitted total weight for the entire vehicle/train is over 3,500 kg. There are many provisions. We will go through the most important ones in this chapter, but if you are still interested in the legislation, you will find it here:

    • The Working Environment Act
    • Regulations on working hours within road transport
    • Regulation on driving and rest time in the EEA
    • Regulation on the implementation of the European agreement on driving and rest time

    Exception

    Some vehicle groups are exempt from the driving and rest time regulations. The ones that are most relevant to you are:

    Exceptions throughout the EU/EEA:

    • Vehicles used in disaster relief, rescue operations or non-commercial humanitarian aid
    • Vehicles used for passenger transport on a route, when the length of the route does not exceed 50 kilometres. This also applies to the regular transport of special groups of people, for example the transport of military personnel
    • Special vehicles for medical purposes
    • Vehicles that help in a car breakdown, operating within a radius of 100 km from the place of stay
    • Vehicles that are being test driven in connection with technical improvements or maintenance, and new or converted vehicles that have not yet been put into service
    • Vehicles or combinations of vehicles in which the maximum permissible weight does not exceed 7.5 tonnes, which are used for the transport of goods of a non-commercial nature
    • Vehicles that are owned or rented without a driver by the armed forces, the civil defense, the fire service and law enforcement, when the transport is in connection with work

    Exceptions in Norway:

    • Vehicles owned or hired without a driver by public authorities to carry out road transport that does not compete with private transport companies
    • Vehicles that are used or rented without a driver by agricultural, horticultural, forestry, farming or fishing enterprises for the transport of goods related to the enterprises' own business activities within a radius of 100 km from the place of stay
    • Vehicles that use alternative, environmentally friendly fuel, and drive within a radius of 100 km from the place of stay, can weigh up to 4.25 tonnes before the driving and rest time regulations apply
    • Vehicles used for traffic training and driving tests with a view to obtaining a driving license or professional diploma, as long as the vehicles are not used for commercial transport
    • Vehicles used in connection with sewage treatment, flood protection, water, gas and electricity supply, maintenance and supervision of roads, collection and removal of household waste, telegraph and telephone service, radio and television broadcasting and bearing of radio or television transmitters or receivers
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